Figure 1.-- |
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Muslim populations were brought into the Russian Empire between 17th and 19th centuries by a series ot Tsars beginning with Catherine the Great. With World War I and the Revolution, Muslims attended to break free of the Russians. There were efforts to form independent Muslim states which were assisted by the Turks and their German allies. The Young Turks dreamed of a Greater Turkey Sultanate. An Islamic Army appeared in the Caucasus, made up of Azeris, Ajars, and other Caucasian Muslims. They were assisted by a Turkish army commanded by Nuri Pasha, firmly committed to Pan-Turanian ideas. They besieged non-Muslims towns in the Caucasus and starved them into submissions. Some participated in the Armenian Genocide. With the Revolution and the collapse of Tsarist military power, Muslims rose up in Central Asia. The free government of Turkestan was announced in Central Asia. The Emirs of Khiva and Bukhara proclaimed their independence. The Turkish-Tartar peoples in Crimea and the Volga Basin rose up. This occurred after the fall of the Rsar and the commencement of the Civil war. The Bolshevicks emerged victorious from the Civil war and deployed the Red Army in the rebelious areas to being them back under Russian control--now Societ rather thsn Tsarist. The Muslim population simmered, some resisting Stalin's collectivization and atheist campaigns. Stalin's Soviet Union was an atheist state which waged a ceasless campaign against religion. Much of the campaign was focused on the Orthodox Church of Russia. Churches were destoyed or defiled and priests arrested and sent to the Gulag. Other religions were also attacked, including Islam which wascwell estanlished in the Caucauses and Central Asia. These attacks caused considerable resentment, but Muslims were powerless to confront the NKVD and Red Army. One attempt occurred in Chechnya. Hasan Israilov, a forner cimmisar, led an uprising which was ruthlessly supresssed. Muslim acquiessence changed when NAZI Germany invaded the Soviet Unioin (June 22, 1941). Barbarossa and the approach of the NAZIs there came the apportunity of resisting Soviet domination. Muslims were not the only Soviet citizens welcoming the NAZIs. There was considerable rejoicing in both the Baltics and western Uukraine. Catholics in the Ukraine also welcomed the NAZIs. The other major group was Muslims. The first Soviet Muslims to come in contact with the NAZIs were the vast number of Red Army soldiers taken prisioner in the opening phase of Barbarossa. The NAZIs were stopped at Vostock-on-Don in 1941, but the Wheremacht 1942 summer offensive took the Germans into the Crimea and the Caucases.
Muslim populations were brought into the Russian Empire between 17th and 19th centuries by a series ot Tsars beginning with Catherine the Great.
With World War I and the Revolution, Muslims attended to break free of the Russians. There were efforts to form independent Muslim states which were assisted by the Turks and their German allies. The Young Turks dreamed of a Greater Turkey Sultanate. An Islamic Army appeared in the Caucasus, made up of Azeris, Ajars, and other Caucasian Muslims. They were assisted by a Turkish army commanded by Nuri Pasha, firmly committed to Pan-Turanian ideas. They besieged non-Muslims towns in the Caucasus and starved them into submissions. Some participated in the Armenian Genocide. With the Revolution and the collapse of Tsarist military power, Muslims rose up in Central Asia. The free government of Turkestan was announced in Central Asia. The Emirs of Khiva and Bukhara proclaimed their independence. The Turkish-Tartar peoples in Crimea and the Volga Basin rose up. This occurred after the fall of the Rsar and the commencement of the Civil war. The Bolshevicks emerged victorious from the Civil war and deployed the Red Army in the rebelious areas to being them back under Russian control--now Societ rather thsn Tsarist. The Muslim population simmered, some resisting Stalin's collectivization and atheist campaigns. Stalin's Soviet Union was an atheist state which waged a ceasless campaign against religion. Much of the campaign was focused on the Orthodox Church of Russia. Churches were destoyed or defiled and priests arrested and sent to the Gulag. Other religions were also attacked, including Islam which wascwell estanlished in the Caucauses and Central Asia. These attacks caused considerable resentment, but Muslims were powerless to confront the NKVD and Red Army. One attempt occurred in Chechnya. Hasan Israilov, a forner cimmisar, led an uprising which was ruthlessly supresssed.
Many Muslims served in the Red Army and other Soviet services. The Soviet Union had a conscription law and thus large numbers of Muslims were drafted for military service from areas with Muslim populations (Crimea, Caucausus, and Centtral Asia). I know very little about their service, The Soviet Union did not have any Muslim units, but some regionally formed units must have had a substsantial number of Muslim soldiers. The atheist policies of the Soviet Union presumably would have impeded Muslim soldiers from becoming officers. I do not know to what extent the Red Army made any attempt to accomodate Muslim soldiers. Nor do I know the impact of the deportation of the Muslim ethnic groups.
Muslim acquiessence changed when NAZI Germany invaded the Soviet Union (June 22, 1941). Barbarossa launched the centraln campaign of World War II, the titanic struggle between NAZI German and the Soviet Union. It was fought on a unpresedented scance and with unfathomable barbarity. Barbarossa and the approach of the NAZIs meant that Soviet Muslims wee presented with the apportunity of resisting Stalinist natioinal and religious oppression. Muslims were not the only Soviet citizens welcoming the NAZIs. There was considerable rejoicing in both the Baltics and western Uukraine. Catholics in the Ukraine also welcomed the NAZIs. The other major group was Muslims. The first Soviet Muslims to come in contact with the NAZIs were the vast number of Red Army soldiers taken prisioner in the opening phase of Barbarossa. The NAZIs were stopped at Vostock-on-Don in 1941, but the Wheremacht 1942 summer offensive took the Germans into the Crimea and the Caucasus.
NAZI interest in Muslims was first focused on the Middleast and Arab resentments toward the British. NAZI officials saw a potential for stirring up troubles for the British. Here Hitler did not want to play an active role, having given Mussolini the primary role. And this created a problem. Italy was one of the colonial powers in the KMiddle East. Italy seized Libya in the 1910s and waged a vicious colonial war supressing the Arabs there. Thus Mussolini was not exactly the best spokesmen for the Axis. Hitler took more of an interest in Turkey. The country had fought with the Germans in World war I and Hitler hoped to bring them into World War II as well. Turkey striking from the south could have supported the NAZI attacks from the north in the Caucauses. The goal was to control the oil fields at Baku. The NAZIs pushed the Pan-Turanian theme in propagabda aimed at Turkey.
Many historians do not given adequate attention to NAZI racial theories. Asdifficult for us to believe today. Many NAZIs actually believed their racial pseudo-sceienc. Actually range of scientists and charlatans came out of the woodwork to concoct nosencical racist theories. NAZI officials turned this racist mumbo-jumbo into policy. Policies in occupied countries were very much determined by racial factors. Religion was not the issue with the NAZIs. While most came from Christian families, the NAZIs began a wide spread campaign to undermine Christinity in Germany. More of a potential problem was the race of Central Asian and Caucasian Muslims. NAZI propaganda posters demomized these people. Yet Hitler was willing to make an exception, much like the Croats were maade "Honorary" Aryans.
The Germans took huge numbers of Red Army soldiers prisioner during the opening phase of Barbarossa. The German treatment of Soviet POWs was nothing short of barbaric. Hitler and Goebels had been railing against Bolshevick Jews and Asiastics. Many of the Soviet POWs were slated for death, part of the NAZI genocidal program for the Slavs. Some of these POWs, however, were willing to fight with the Germans, both anti-Soviet Slavs as well as many Muslims. The deteriorating situation on the Eastern Front caused the NAZIs to considering using some of these men. Hitler in a a top secret memorandum ordered OKW was to create two units from anti-Soviet Muslim volunteers (December 1941). The two units were to be: 1) the Turkestanisch Legion (made up of volunteers from Central Asia--Turkomans, Uzbeks, Kazakhs, Kirghizs, Karakalpaks, and Tadjiks) and 2) and the Kaukasisch-Mohammedan Legion (Caucasian Muslims volunteers--Azeris, Daghestans, Chechens, Ingushes, and Lezghins. A third unit, the Wolgatatarische Legion (Muslim Tartars) was formed in Poland (January 1942). The Muslims SS units were seen as a way of bringing the Caccauses and perhaps the Middle East into the German camp. Interestingly Hitler appears to havec views the Muslim POWs very differently from the anti-Soviet Slav POWs. Hitler stated "I consider only the Muslims to be reliable ... I see no danger in the establishment of purely Muslim units." (December 1942).
The Wehrmsacht was badly damaged by the Soviet Winter offensive before Moscow (December 1941).
Army Group South which had taken Rovstock-on-Don, the gateway to the Caucauses also had to pull back. The damage was so severe that the Wehrmnact could not mount abother Brbarossa all along the Eastern Front. RatherHitlervhad to chose one part of the Front. He chose the south, eager fr the agrcultural and mineral resources of the Ukraine and the oil of the Caucasus. Oil was the single greatest weakness of the NAZI war effort.The objective for Summer 1942 was the Ukraine, the Caucusus, and Stalingrad on the Volga. As the campaign unfolded, Stalingrad increasingly became the foicus of the campaign. Hitler though had insisted on dividing his forced so that he could also seize the Caucusus. Army Group South after inflicted severe losses on the Red Army in the Ukraine, raced toward Stalingrad. But Hitler stripped off important elements to drive into the Caucasus. The goal was the oil fields at Baku. Hitler's generals opposed spliting the forces, especilly weakening the 6th Army' drive toward Salingrad. A similar disagreement had doomed Army Group Center's drive on Moscow in 1941. Hitler again dismissed the warnings of his generals. The Germans retook Rovstock-on-Don (July 1942) and then poured into the Caucasus .
The Soviets expected the German 1942 summer offensive to come in the north against Moscow. Thus only weak Red Army units defended the Caucasuses. Major German formations in Army Group A crossed the lower Don and poured into the Caucusus. The Red Army did not seiously contest this offensive and fell back in good order. This mean that powerful German formations were diverted from the climatic battle of the War which ws to be fought in and around Stalingrad. Maikop, the one oil field north of the Caucasus Mountains, was so completely destroyed that it took a year to bring it back into production. The bulk of the Soviet oil fields were south of the Cauccasus Mountains. This was a major barrier in which the Panzers were useless. German mountain units probed the few mountain passes and on August 21 planted the swastica flag on Mount Elbrus. The terraine, however, enabled small Red Army units to fight off superior German forces. The passes were easily defended and in October when the cold weather began were impassable. Thus Army Group B with its strong Panzer forces was uselessly deployed while the 6th Army and Fourth Panzer Army struggled for Stamingrad far to the north. In the end, the massive offensive into the Caucusses failed to net meaningful quantities of oil for the NAZIs and only served to weaken the drive on Stalingrad.
The Germans waged a war of unrelenying cruelty in the East. Ironically once far enough east into Muslims areas, Hitler ordered a cange in policy. The Germand drove into the northern Caucauses. Here they found Muslim nationalities, the Chechens, Ingushi, Karachai, and Balkarians. The Wehrmact took a series of measures to win over the local poopulation.
The Germans to kolkhozes (communes), reopen mosques, and to actuallyb pay for requisitioned goods . The soldiers were ordered to behve correctly towrd the locals--especially wome, "Model conduct' ws expected. The Wehrmaht allowed the formation of national committees at the local level to assist in the administration of law and order as well as religion, culture, and the economy
The Germans set up a National Committee in the Karachai region. It was headed by Kaki Baieramukov. Ceremonies were held during the Bairam Muslim holiday in Kislovodsk (October 1942). At this time the German offensive was still proceeding. The locl people presented gifts to the German officials. The German announced the formation of a volunteer unit of Karachai horsemen to fight with the Whermacht.
The Germans also set up a National Committe in Kabardino-Balkhar area. Here there was some division between Muslim Balkars and the mostly athiest/Christian Kabardinians. Selim Shadov headed the National Committee. A ceremony was held during the Muslim Kurman ceremonies at Nalchik (December 18). By this time the locals must have begun second thoughts at the German position in the Stalingrad pocket was deteriorating at Manstin's relief force grinding to a halt. Perhaps theclocals wre not fully awae of this. At any rate, gifts were exchanged. The locals gave the Germans wonderful horses and received Korans and captured Red Army weapons. An official from Reich Eastern Ministry named Braeutigam wa present. Hecspoke about thet lasting bonds of German friendship with the peoples of the Caucasus.
The Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers and fought with Germany during World war I. As a result it was one of the great European empires that were destroyed by the War. Modern Turkey emerged after the War. Turkey remained neutral in World War II. Although often given little attention in World War II histories, this was of major importance in the outcome of the War. Germany's most significant weakness was oil. Turkey would have provided a significant threat to the Soviet Caucasian oil fields and would have provided an important ally to the Germans in their 1942 southern offensive. Turkey almost certainly could have seized the oil fields in Iraq that supplied the Royal Navy in the Mediterranean and the 8th Army in Egypt. Hitler was very interesting in drawing Turkey into the War. And as a World War I ally, there were links. The Germans also had a great deal to offer the Turks, especially the Pan-Turkic nationalists. The Wehrmacht entered the northern Caucausus (July 1942). This provided considerable opportunity to appeal to the Pan-Turic nationalists. The Germans thought they had convinced to enter the War. Here we are not sure, but the disaster at Stalingrad cerainly settled the issue. Churchill also worked hard on getting Turkey to join the Allies. Just before Barbarossa Turkey signed a Friendship Treaty with Germany (June 18, 1941). A joint statement following the signing indicated a desire for further economic cooperation. The Germans in particular were interested in Turkish chrominum ore. The Turks promised to cooperate with the Germans to close the straits to Soviet shipping. In the end, however, Turkey wisely remained neutral.
The disater at Stalingrad forced the Germans to withdraw from the Caucasus least they be cut off like the 6th Army in Stalingrad. The Muslims that had collaborated went along with them. They knew only to well what would happen if the NKVD got hold of them. And with the withdraw went any hope of a NAZI-Muslim alliance to seize the Middle East.
I am not entirely sure how the NAZI Muslim units were recruited. I think it was primarily from the POWs taken in the German offenses. There seems to also have been recruitment from the civilians in areas occupied by the Germans. The period of German occupation in areas with Muslim populatioins, however, was a fairly limited time. The Germans held the norther Caucasus for only a few months (July-Secember 1942). They held the Crimea for a longer period.
While the NAZI grand design foir the Caucasus and Middle East collapsed, the Germans still had Muslim populations in the areas they controlled which could be recrited for military service. The losses in Stalingrad creasted a desperate need for additional msanpower. It must have discouraged many Muslims from volunteering, but even so quite a number did join the Germans such was their hatred of Stalin and the Communists. Many Turkestanis in particular joined the Germans. The first NAZI Muslim military formations were formed by the Wehrmacht with Hitler's full approval. An imoressed Reichsführer SS Heinrich Himmler decided to recruit Muslims for the initiall racially pure SS abd units were formed within the Waffen SS. Several German Muslim units were formed as both combat and labor battalions. They saw combat on the eastern Front, the Balkans, Italy and France. They were widely employed for operations against partisans.
The Germans published several magazines and newspapers to help motivate their Muslim allies. These included Gazavat (Holy War), Svoboda. Ezenedel'naja gazeta legionerov (Freedom. Weekly Newspaper for the Legionnaires), Milli Turkistan (The National Turkestan), Yeni Turkistan (The New Turkestan), Milli Adabijat (National Literature), Idel-Ural (Volga-Ural), Tatar Adabijat (Tartar Literature), and Azerbaican (Azerbaijan). These newspapers and magazine persued the theme of independent states in the post-Soviet era. The German Eastern Ministry and Wehrmacht's propaganda division did not interfere much as the individuals chose were anti-Soviet and the natinalist and Islamic thees they persued were in line with NAZI policy while fighting the Soviets. Of course after the Soviet Union was defeated, NAZI policy would have taken a very different approach. This is a development that seems to have eluded the Soviet and other Muslims that decided to support the Germans.
Even before the end of the War, Stalin ordered the punishment of the nationalities believed to be cooperaring with the Germans. This included the Chechens, Balkars, Ingushi, Karachais, and Crimean Tartars. They were deported to Cebntral Asia and Siberia. This often meant death as little provision was made for these people in the virtual wilderness areas to which they were deported. The tragedy of the Chechens has continued to haunt both Russia and the Chechen people. Soviet authorities allowed most of these people to return to their homeland after Stalin's deah and Kruschev's de-Stalinization program. This dispensation was not extended to the Crimean Tartars who were seen as especially traitoros collaborators. Soviet autgoities never allowed them to return.
Our information on the performance of these NAZI Muslim units is incomplete. One source suggests that there was a noted difference in the performance on the Eastern and Western fronts.
The Germans found the performance of the Muslims on the Western Front disappoining. They did not seem eager to fight the Western Allies. The same was true other formations recruited in the East. And the Germans did not deploy formations recruited in the West on the Western front, uncertain about their loyalty. In contrast, the Muslim units appear to have fought tenciously against the Red Army on the Eastern Front. There are numerous examples of this. Three Turkic battalions fought to the death at Stalingrad. Another report describes a Turkic battalion that had successfully broke out of an encirclement action around Kharkov, but then reentered the pocket to bring out the body of their German commander. Several factors explain this difference. Soviet Muslims knew what would happen to them if they surrender to the Red Army. They were also to vary degrees motivated by nationalist and Islamic ideals which could not be furthered by fighting in the West.
The Russian Liberation Army (Русская Освободительная Армия--ROA) was the anti-Soviet forces that fought with the NAZIs after the German invasion of the Soviet Union (June 1941). The ROA was also known as the Vlasov Army, but Vlasov led only one part of the overall anti-Soviet groups that fought with the NAZIs. The ROA was not part of the initial NAZI planning for Barbarossa. Hitler was planning not only a military campaign in the east, but a war of extinction. Hitler's objective, however, was eventually Holocaust for the Slavic people of the Soviet Union. Only when Red Army resistance stiffened was the idea of a ROA given any real consideration. NAZI propaganda did not focus on the racial component, but rather rather stresses a campaign against Bolshevism. As a result, the NAZIs could recruit Russians and other Soviet peoples to their cause. The major ROA leader was former Red Army general Andrey Vlasov. He tried to unite all anti-Soviet Russians and other nationalities in opposing Stalin. Himmler conceived of the idea of forming all anti-Soviet units together under General Vlasov's ROA. Many of non-Russian units rejected the idea. What they wanted was independence and did not see as that coming from Russians, either Soviet or anti-Soviet. Veli Kayum Khan of the Turkestani National Committee opposed this union as did Muslim leaders form Caucasus (Khedia, Mischa, Kantimer, Alibegow, and Tschamalja).
One of the principal groups declining any cooperatin with the RLA was the Turkestani National Committee. Their primry objective was the independence of Turkestan. Veli Kayum Khan headed the Committee which was refered head of the Turkestani "government in exile", had been in charge of the political and national leadership of Turkestani volunteers. It had successfully raised the morale of the Turkestani miliitary volunteers in the Wehrmsacht and SS by supporting independence for Turkestan. Kayum Khan worked with the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem and the SS-FHA to set schools at Dresden and Götingen so that religious imams could be trained for the Muslim military units in the Waffen SS and the Wehrmacht.
The misfortune for the anti-Soviet Muslim soldiers did not end with the war. Hitle killed himself in his Berlin Bunker (April 30, 1945). The final NAZI surrender occurred a few day later (May 8). The anti-Soviet Russians and Muslims attempted to surrender to to the Western Allies.
The Western Allies at the time, however, were attempting to get along with Stalin. Thus the Allies turned over these people, some times with their damilies, to the Soviets. There they were either executed or condemned to the Gulag.
Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr I. The Gulag Archipelago (Harper & Row: New York, 1973), 660p.
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