Figure 1.--This Keystone stereographic image shows school children at Zakopane, Galicia. They would hce attended a Volksschulen, probably taught in Polish. Polish children in German and Tsarist areas would hve attended schools taught in German and Russian. The boys all have the same hats. Note the folk styled embroidery on the boys' pants and the fact the boys are all wearing long pants. But in urban areas by this time were mostly wearing knee pants. The boys but not the firls have book bags over their shouldrs. Most of the children are barefoot. The card is undated, but was probanly taken about 1900. Note the trees. Galicia and Bukowina ha rugged, heavily forested areas. Keysone stereo card No. 15609. Set: 465. Click on the image to see he Keystone text on the back of the card.

The principal Austro province with a Polish population was Galicia, the northeastern corner of the Audtro-Hungaroin Empire. Austria acquired Polish Galicia and in the 18th century Polish Partitions (First Partition). It was a generally poor agicultural area, with little industry. Economic development and as a resylt, living standards were below that of the Prussian German and Tsarist Polish areas. This difference apparently developed during The Austrian era. Imperial officials apparently gave al ow priority to the province. [Garlicki, pp. 11-12.] Large numbers of Poles from the privince emigrated to America in the late-19th and early-20th century. The Austrian imperial government for most of the 19th century made few concessions little or no concessions to their Polish subjects, [Lukowski and Zawadzki, p. 129.] One historian explains the ustrian imperil attitude toward patriotism in heir multii-ethnic empire. Imperial officials believed that a "patriot was a traitor – unless he was a patriot for the [Austrian] Emperor." [Murad, p. 17.] That said, by the time of World war I, the Austrians had conceded more autnomy to Galacia than was the case in the Polish lands ruled by the Germans and Russians. The Austrians titled the provincial government the Governorate Commission (Komisja Gubernialna) and it had considerable authority in local affairs. The term would be picked up by the Germans in both World War I and II. Polish language publishing was permitted. We are not sure about schooling in the Polish era or in the Austrian Empire era. We do know a little about the Austro-Hungarian era (1867-1918). The Austrian imperial government was recognized as the official regional language on Polish soil. It was used in schools. Here we believe this was primarily primary schools--Volksschulen. Austrian imperial regulations required school attendabce from 6 years to 12-14 years. (This varied from province to province.) We believe that there were also Polish-language secondary schools. Polish cultural organizations were given some freedom to operate. Polish political parties could formally participate in Austro-Hungarian politics. [Garlicki, pp. 11-12.] Galicia was a majority Polih area, but there was substantial Ukranian and Jewish minorities. As is the case of imperial powers from time im memorial, imperial authorities pursued a divide and conquer/rule policy. Imperial officials appear to have promoted Ukranian cultural organizations. Imperial authoities referred to Ukranians as Ruthenians so as not to recognize conections with Tsarist controlled Ukrania. The Poles were disturbed by this. One Pole charged that "Austria-Hungary had invented Ukrainians". [Subtelny] There were also Ukrainian-lnguage schools. After the failed 1848 revolution, imperial officials allowed the Ukrainians to form political parties. Austria-Hungary gave Ruthenians (Ukrainians) far more rights than the great mass of Ukranians in the Tsarist Empire. [Magocsi] The Austrian imperial government has compulsory school attendabce laws. They aopparently were not strictly enforced. But an even greater problen was that there so few schools. Many children lived in areas that were not near a primary school. As aresult, lieracy rates, were rther low among Poles and Ukranians, espcially when compared to Jews which were primarily urban communities. One assessment suggets literacy rates in the villages of only about 40 percent. [Garlicki, pp. 11-12.]

Sources

Garlicki, Andrzej. Polsko-Gruziński sojusz wojskowy (Polityka: Wydanie Specjalne, 2008).

Lukowski, Jerzy and Hubert Zawadzki. A Concise History of Poland (Cambridge University Press: 2001).

Magocsi, Paul R. A History of Ukraine: The Land and Its Peoples (University of Toronto Press, 2010), 894p.

Murad, Anatol. Franz Joseph I of Austria and His Empire (Ardent Media: 1968).

Subtelny, Orest. Ed. Ukraine: A History (University of Toronto Press: Toronto, 2009 4th Edition).

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