Figure 1.--This cabinet is undated, but was probanly taken in the 1880s. It came out of a batch of portraits of the Cheyenne and Kiowa people.This portrait was identified as being taken at Hannon in the then Indian territory. Written on the back of this photo is "Mrs Orange & boy, Cheyenne." This is a posed studio portrait of the woman and her son. Both are well-dressed for the portrait, he's wearing a printed cotton shirt with a scarf with a silver slide that looks like a star. Mrs. Orange is wearing a fringed trade blanket, Pendleton or Oregon State, and silver earrings.

The Native-American tribes of North Anerica include a bewildering number of tribes encompassing a wide range of linguistic and cultural groups. The relatively small number of Europeans and the inefficency of fire arms when European settlement began in the 17th century put the European settlers and Native Ameican tribes on relatively equal footing. The major grouping along the North Atlantic coast was the Iriquoi Confederacy. As Europeans manufactured more lethal fire arms and as more Europeans arrived, the balance of power shifted in favor of the Europeans. Native American tribes hoped to play off the French and English, but after the defeat of the French in the French and Indian Wars this was no longer possible. The British Crown attempted to restrict colonial encroachment into Native American lands, but the victory of the Americans in the American Revolution significantly impaired the situation of the Native Americans. The Louis and Clark expedition (1803-04) provided the United States a look at the Plains (Cheynene, Nez-Pierce, Blackfoot and many others) and North-westerm Tribes at the turn of the 19th century. At first the focus was on Kentucky and the Ohio Territory. The victories of Mad Anthony Wayne at Fallen Timbers and Harrison at Horseshoe Bend doomed the Native American position in the Northwest Territory. Andrew Jackson's victories over the Creeks in the south doomed the Native American position in the South. The Cherokee adopted a novel strategy, adopting many European cultural patterns. The State of Georgia was, however, intent on expeling them which lead to the Trail of Tears. Small numbers of Seminoles held out in the Everglades for several decades. For a while the Planes Tribes were able to maintain their position. This changed dramatically with the six-shooter and repeating rifle. The Civil War delayed the inveitable, but the U.S. Calvalry after the Civil War soon drove the Planes Tribes onto reservations. The last tribe to be pacified was the Apache in the Southwest.

Initial Encounters

The relatively small number of Europeans and the inefficency of fire arms when European settlement began in the 17th century put the European settlers and Native Ameican tribes on relatively equal footing. The major grouping along the North Atlantic coast was the Iriquoi Confederacy. As Europeans manufactured more lethal fire arms and as more Europeans arrived, the balance of power shifted in favor of the Europeans.

English-French Rivelry

England anf France had been fighting wars for centuries. Thus the colonial competition was a continuation of several centturies of war in Europe. The French and British both settled North America. The British had Hudson Bay and the Atlantic coast colonies. The French had Canada and a tenous hold on the Misissippi. This set in motion a protracted struggle to determine who would control North America. Native American tribes hoped to maintain their independence by playing off the French and English. The French moving south from Caada and the English and Americas crossing the Appalchand collided in the Ohio country. It was here a very young George Washington as a colonel in the Virgia milittia fired the first shots in what would become the French and Indian Wars.

French and Indian War (1754)-63)

The French and Indian War was part of a larger struggle known in Europe as the Seven Years War (1756-63) and included naval battles and a struggle for the control of India. The French gained some early victories. The superiority of the British Royal Navy and the larger English colonial population eventually proved decisive. The defeat of the French in the French and Indian Wars meant that the Native American strategy of playing the two European powers against each other was no longer possible. The English defeat of the French had an unitended consequence. The British decided they wanted the Americans to help pay for the coist of empire. In doing so they ignored the colonial legislatures. Without the French threat, the colonists began to see little need for English protection.

Royal Proclamation (1763)

The British Crown attempted to restrict colonial encroachment into Native American lands. The British Royal Proclamation of 1763 restricted white settlement to Crown lands east of the Appalachian Mountains. It was the British effort to prevent conflict between the colonists and Native Americans. It was a decesion taken in London without consulting the colonial legislatures. It was extremely unpopular in America and was one of the contributing causes of the Revolution. Indian Territory was reduced under British administration and would be reduced again after the American Revolution.

American Revolution (1776-83)

Many Native American tribes had long-standing relationships with the British, developed during the protracted struggle against the French. Many of these tribes joined the British in the Revolutionary War. The victory of the Americans in the American Revolution significantly impaired the situation of the Native Americans. Without the British, there was now no restriction on American movement west beyond the Appalachins. This set up the conflict between the Americans and Native Americans over the Ohio country.

Northwest Territory

At first the American focus on western expansion was on Kentucky, American control of Kentucky was largely achieved during the Revolutionary War. The Treaty of Paris recognized American jurisdiction to the Mississippi River (1793). This included extensive areas not yet in possession of the Unite States. Western expansion shify=ted to the Ohio Territory. The Americans twice invaded the Ohio Country and were twice defeated by the Native Americans. Mad Anthony Wayne finally defeated a Native American confederacy at the Battle of Fallen Timbers (1794). The Americans imposed the the unfavorable Treaty of Greenville, which ceded most of what is now Ohio, part of what is now Indiana, and the present day sites of Chicago and Detroit to the United States. William Henry Harrison's victory at Horseshoe Bend (1811) doomed the Native American position in the Northwest Territory. The Native Americans joined the British in the War of 1812.

Louisana Purchase (1803)

America at first only extend to the Mississippi River. The Louiana Purchase nearly doubled the size of the country and brought many more Indian tribes within American jurisdiction. The Louis and Clark expedition (1803-04) provided the United States a look at the Plains (Cheynene, Nez-Pierce, Blackfoot and many others) and North-westerm Tribes at the turn of the 19th century.

South

Andrew Jackson's victories over the Creeks in the south doomed the Native American position in the South.

Indian Territory

The Native American policy of the United States became Indian Removal. This was a policy policy pursued intermittently by various early American presidents. President Andrew Jackson (1829-37) who estanlished his reputation during the watswithbthe southern tribes persued the policy of removal vigorously. The basis for the Jackson policy was the Indian Removal Act (1830). The Indian territories was western land set aside for Native Americans removed from the East. . The borders were set by the Indian Intercourse Act of 1834. These were the unorganized lands set aside for Native Americans and not one of the Territories organized for European settlement. The Indian territories served as the destination for the policy, The Five Civilized Tribes in the South were the most prominent eastern tribes displaced by the policy. The Cherokee adopted a novel strategy, adopting many European cultural patterns. The State of Georgia was, however, intent on expeling them which lead to the Trail of Tears. The Native Americans were relocated to what is now Arkansas and Oklahoma, where there were already many Native Americans. Eventually the Indian territort was reduced to what is now Oklahoma and eventually just to the eastern pat. Other tribes, such as the Delaware, Cheyenne, and Apache were also forced to relocate to the Indian territory. The Five Civilized Tribes set up towns in the Indian territory, including Tulsa, Ardmore, Tahlequah, Tishomingo, Muskogee and others. These are now some of the larger cities. The tribes brought their African slaves to Oklahoma. This added to the African-American population because there were already run away slaves there. The Oklahoma Territory was organized (1890). Indian territory became the eastern half of the state. Native Americans attempted to enter the Union as the State of Sequoyah, but were rejected by Congress and Administration who did not want two new Western states. Oklahoma citizens then united to seek admission as a single state. Oklahoma statehood meant the end of Indian territory (1907).

Seminole Wars

Small numbers of Seminoles held out in the Everglades for several decades. It proved to be the longest conflict in American history and a costly one for the young American Republic.

Plains Tribes

For a while the Planes Tribes were able to maintain their position. This changed dramatically with the six-shooter and repeating rifle. The Civil War delayed the inveitable, but the U.S. Calvalry after the Civil War soon drove the Planes Tribes onto reservations.

The Apache

The last tribe to be pacified was the Apache in the Southwest.

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Created: 12:38 AM 10/23/2007
Last updated: 12:38 AM 10/23/2007