Figure 1.--This photograph is the work of Frank Meadow Sutcliffe who left us a wonderful visual image of late-19th century Yorkshire. A group of boys looking over a wall watching boats in the Whitby harbour during 1892. He entitled it for some reason, 'Stern Reality'. We have also seen it called 'Excitement' and dated 1888. Modern readers looking at this image will be horrified to see little voys going barefoot in cool weather and it often rains in Yorkshire. Actually at the time there were very few places whw so many boys this age would have footwear. The reason for this of course was the industrial revolution which generated wealth on an unprecsented scale. Unfortunalely this is the kind of image used in school textbooks to perpetuate the absurd notion that the Industrial Revolution generated poverty and child labor.

Footwear predates history, appearing during the Stone Age. No one knows just when because the materials used are biodegradeable and do not last well unless preserved in unknown circumstances. The oldest footwear was sandals that have been discovered today were made by Native Amercans. They were found in Fort Rock Cave in the United States (Oregon). They were woven from sagebrush bark. This suggests there were earlier examples, almost certainly far older. Radiocarbon tests fond that these sandals were 10,000 years old or older (8000 BC). [Robbins] Hosiery, meaning footwear without durable soles, came later. It was almost certainly animal fur and were probably a kind of combination hosery-footwear. Children's hosiery and footwear is a relatively modern topic. Most children until the 19th century went barefoot except perhaps living in extreme northern areas like Laplanders, Siberian tribes, and Eslimoes. We see children going barefoot in msny ancient socities. The best images are from ancient Egypt, but we also see this in Greece and Rome. The children of affluent parents might also have footwear, but most other children went barefoot, both boys and girls. This did not begin until the industrial Revolution which affected children's footwear in two ways. First the Industrial Revolution generated wealth on an unprecedented scale. For the first time in history, average people and their families, at least in Western Europe and North America, could lead prosperous, comfortable lives. This mean that they could afford footwear for their childrn for the first time. The second development was that because of constantly improving industrial practicies and ever increasing efficencies, the price of footwear declined so that moderate income consumers could afford both hosiery and shoes of various types. Of course footwear is a very utilitarian item. Wearing shoes prorected the feet and allowed children to do things and go places that were not before possible. And it help keep the child warm in cold weather. And like other clothing a fashion component soon followed.

Pre-history

Footwear predates history, appearing during the Stone Age. No one knows just when because the materials used are biodegradeable and do not last well unless preserved in unknown circumstances. The oldest footwear was sandals that have been discovered today were made by Native Amercans. They were found in Fort Rock Cave in the United States (Oregon). They were woven from sagebrush bark. This suggests there were earlier examples, almost certainly far older. Radiocarbon tests fond that these sandals were 10,000 years old or older (8000 BC). [Robbins] Hosiery, meaning footwear without durable soles, came later. It was almost certainly animal fur and were probably a kind of combination hosery-footwear. Children's hosiery and footwear is a relatively modern topic.

Ancient Era

We see children going barefoot in many ancient socities. The best images are from ancient Egypt because of all the surviving tomb paintings. For most ancient societies we do not have such valuable sources. There is as a result much fifference of opinion on the question of when and if children in ancient times wore any kind of footwear. As in Egypt, we also see children going barefoot in Greece and Rome. The children of affluent parents might also have footwear, but most other children went barefoot, both boys and girls. Some children did wear footwear. Here we are not entirely sure about the conventions. They surely involvd family weakth and status. Seasonlity was also involbvd and perhaps location and occassion. Ancient Greek children might wear sandals and slipper-like shoes. They were the same styles worn by their adult parents. Boys seem to have begin wearing sandals about age 7-years when they first began to have experiences away fom home. This was the age they began to attend school and ws widely seen as a rite of passage. This occurred later for girls who did not attend school. Girls did not leave home until biological adulthood and marriage. Thu they began wearing sandals at a later age. This is a topic not addressed in any detail in the written record, but archeologists have found some useful information. Tanagra terra-cotta figures seem to show younger Greek children, perhaps mostly girls, wore slippers at home (early-3rd century BC).

Medieval Era

The medieval era was a long era, basically a millenium. Fashion changed, but more slowly than is the trend in more modern eras. Our information on the early medieval era (Dark Ages) is limited because of the paucity of written sources and artistic depictions. Much of our knowledge comes grom the middle- and late medieval era. Archaeological artifacts found in and around medieval London (1100-1450). They provide evidence of children's footwear emulating the adult fashions of the day with only minor differences. Interestingly, children's footwear fashions seem to lag about 50 years behind popular adult fashions. Practicality seems to have been especially important innchildren's footwear. Footwear closures for children's footwear seem to have emphasized practicality more than fashion. The closures seem to have been placed on the center front vamp instead of the more stylish side as was often the case for adults. The fashion extremes often depictd in modern illustration, especially the Poulaine shoe with the long pointed toe, were less commoin for children or a least mucg more modest. [Grew and De Neergaard]

Modern Times

Modern times begin with the end of the medieval era. The chronology varied somewhat from coyntry to country.

The 16th century

The 17th century

Much of what we know about 17th century footwear comes from Europe. And we have increasing contemporary written records. One shie maker wrote a book on his craft and insisted that footwear for newborns should be part of the midwife's kit. [Delaney] It was in the early-17th century that the first permanent colonies were etablished along the Atlantic cost of North America. The colonists followed the English fashions of the day as best they could, although information on early American trends is limited. One case of early-colojial America found tht more than one style of footwear for children existed in 17th century Boston. Much of the evidence dates to about 1670. The author used fascinating portraits. There are relativelky few 17th centurybAmerican portraits, but there are a few. They included: the Mason children Alice Mason. There are also portraits of the Gibbs children. The artist are unknon, but the portraits seem to have been done by the same artist. The artist did not focus on footwear, but some detils can be dicerneed. The rounded toe and the square folded toe with setback sole can be seen. Archaeological arifacts uncovered at the Nanny Privy Site in Boston dating to about the same time also suggest multiple styles. They included: 1) the rounded toe, 2) the square toe setback sole, and 3) the square setback toe. One author potulates a possible variation of the square toe with equidistant triangular openings place on either side of the toe. [Butterworth, pp. 66-67.]

The 18th century

Major changes in footwear began in the 18th century as was the case for children's clothing in general. Swaddling meaning the wrapping the limbs of newborn infants to keep them inactive, was widespread in Europe trough the erly 18th century. It made them easy to handle. These and other child care practices began to be questioned. Theopen sgot was fired by Jean-Jacques Rousseau's book Émile (1762). The book was an essay on 'natural' methods of child care. This was part of the Enligtenment which idealized nature. Rosseau wrote, "Let Émile run about barefoot all the year round, upstairs, downstairs, and in the garden. Far from scolding him, I shall follow his example; only I shall be careful to remove any broken glass." But raising a child "ála Jean-Jacques" sometimes had unwelcome results: "[T]heir hair straggles in a hideous and disgusting way …They are longer checked, but clamber on to you with their muddy feet." Swaddling at the time was declining. There was, however, considerable difference if opinion as to whether children should wear shoes. There were many other voices which entered the debate on child care and clothing, including footear. One author providing guidance on what he calls nursing, meaning child care vehemently criticizes long-established practice of swaddling and insists that 'Shoes and stockings are very needless Incumbrances' for the young. [Cadogan] Here it needs to be mentioned, that Rousseau and others were primarily talking about the children of the afflueent classes. Most poor people which at the time were the bulk of the population could not afford shoes which were expensive items. They might scrape together money for cold weather footwear. Other wise the children would have to stay home in cold weather. The tendency of children to to commonly wear shoes did not begin until the industrial Revolution which affected children's footwear in two ways. First the Industrial Revolution generated wealth on an unprecedented scale. For the first time in history, average people and their families, at least in Western Europe and North America, could lead prosperous, comfortable lives. This mean that they could afford footwear for their childrn for the first time. The second development was that because of constantly improving industrial practicies and ever increasing efficencies, the price of footwear declined so that moderate income consumers could afford both hosiery and shoes of various types. Of course footwear is a very utilitarian item. Wearing shoes prorected the feet and allowed children to do things and go places that were not before possible. And it help keep the child warm in cold weather. And like other clothing a fashion component soon followed. The industrial revolution began in the mid-18h century, but did not begin to impact most countries beyond Britain until the 19th century.

The 19th century

Most children until the 19th century went barefoot except perhaps living in extreme northern areas like Laplanders, Siberian tribes, and Eslimoes. The Industril Revolution began affecting Westrn Europe beyond Britain and the United States in a major way during the 19th century. The technological advances affecting footwear production occurred in the 19th century. We also note many boys and girls wearing very similar styles. Shoe making began to become more systtimized, but not yet industrailzed (early-19th century). The shpe making industry was most advanced in New England. We begin to see indications of the first dedicated styles for children. This is understandable because we also see dedicated children's clothing styles being worn for the first time--most prominently the skeleton suit. They are almost always depicted being worn with low-cut shoes, but never 18th century buckle shoes. The best evidence for purpose deigned children's footwar was infant footar, what we might today call booties. Apparentlt for some reaon they were called cack. [Chipman] Cack were a baby's soft leather-soled heelless shoe or a flat. Cack may have been a localized New England ter, We first note them in Massachusetts (about 1820). The term 'bootie' is much more recent. Apparently first used in the Sears, Roebuck and Co. catalog in 1929. Sears probably used a term that was already being used orally. [OED] A major fashion and home making development in the 19th century was the proliferation of publications offering advice to women, both in books and the increaingly popular periodicals. These home making guides suuggested that mothers make shoes for their younger children, especially infants. Godey's Ladies' Book (1830-1898) and Peterson's Magazine (1842- ). An anonymously written homemaking guide provides patterns and sewing directions for baby shes, both the first and second pair. There were also a pair made from 'ticking material'. [A Lady, pp. 173-74.] Thus w begin to see footwear specifically designed for children, although the countinue to be influenced by the outward look of adult shoes. George Warren Brown founded the Brown Shoe Company in St. Louis, Missouri (1890). No other shoe company would have a greater impact on childen's footwear.

The 20th century

The 20th century brought a revolution in children's footwear. Until the 20th century, the footwear made for children basically followed the contemporary fashion styles of the adults. There were of course adjustmnts taking into account the special characteristics of infant and child feet--meaning primarily the size. Only in the 20th century did children's footwear begin to diverge from the adult styles. We see styles evolving specifically for children. At the same time we also see greater gender divergence. In the first half of the 20th century, this varied somewhat from country to country. A Brown Shoe executive met cartoonist Richard F. Outcault atl the 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition (St. Louis World's Fair). The Brown Shoe Company engaged Outcault and and the company had a new symbol--Buster Brown. His varition on the Oxford lowcut style for boys appeared an in time would become the standard style for boys. Buster's sister Mary Jane would give her name to ubiquitous girl's low-cut strap shoe that would become a standard for girls, although at the time it was seen as more of a shoe for youngr children of both genders. Convention varied from country to county.

The 21st century

Sources

Butterworth, Jeffrey A. "Gentle Souls: Shoemakers in Seventeenth Century Boston." Master's thesis, University of Rhode Island, 1998.

Chipman, Reverend Richard Manning. (Massachusetts).

Cadogan, William. "Essay on Nursing" (1748).

Reverend Richard Manning Chipman

Cunnington, Phillis, and Catherine Lucas. Costume for Births, Marriages and Deaths (London: Adam and Charles Black, 1972).

Delaney, Thomas. The Gentle Craft (1597-1600).

Grew, Francis, and Margrethe De Neergaard. Shoes and Pattens (London: Museum of London, 1988, 2001).

(A) Lady. The Workwoman's Guide (Reprint. Guilford, Conn.: Opus Publications, 1986). Originally published in 1838.

Neils, Jenifer and John H. Oakley. Also various contributors. Coming of Age in Ancient Greece: Images of Childhood from the Classical Past.

Oxford English Dictionary (OED).

Robbins, William G. Oregon: This Storied Land (Oregon Historical Society Press: 2005). Wilkinson. Manners and Customs Vol. III.

Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. Émile (1762).