Figure 1.--With the NAZI seizure of power, groups of mrching boys like this began to appear throughout the wridth a breath of Germany. We do not know just where this photograph was takem. There are two words at the front of the building. On the left it says 'Wirtschaft' and at the right ......fabrik'. Wirtschaft means economy, but in this case it seems to be a pub or saloon. We are sure they sell alcohol in that establishment. Arguabbly the most sucessful youth group in history was the highly nationalist Hitler Youth, at least in suceeding in he gials set forward by Hitler the NAZI Party. Göring claimed that the Hitler Youth was simoly the NAZI Noy Scouts. Nothing could be further from the truth. The Jitler Youth was a NAZI Party formation and participation was legally mandatory. Parents could be arested if they did not enroll their children. The Boy Scouts was volunary and apolitical. Not onlu could parents chose whether or not their childrn participated, but played a central role in the program.

Nationalism was strong throughout Europe especially beginning with the French Revolution. This became a destbiling force as most of the contient was controlled by large empires intent on supressing the nationlist aspirations of their ethnic minorities. The Boy Scouts were formed before World war I, essentially as a British nationalist group, but even before the War hd begun to make a transition to an international movement. The tragedy of World War I significanyly affected nationalist thought as in many countries the people were determined never to fight another war. This allowed the dictators (Mussolini, Hitler, and Stalin) to prepare for war while the democracies curtailed military spending. Socilist and pacifists groups also waged campaigns ahainst most mationalism and military spending. The result was the tragedy of World war II and almost the loss of Western civilization. Nationalist thoughtg in smller countries and minority ethnicities were not as affected by World War I and remained strong in many contries. And there were nationlizst youth goups formed during the inter-War era. Not all wee Fascist, but here there was a fine line. A major part of the Fascist ideology was nationalism. The mot importnt were the Itlian Bglia and the Grman Hitler Youth. NAZI victories rsulted in the formation or strenghening of nationist youth in occupied countries. Such groups were disbanded after the War, but a few were subsequently forned, primarily by minoriy ethnic groups.

Albania

Youth groups were not very important in Albania. A small Scouting movement was founded (1922). There was a small natiinalist youth group--GLA. We do not yet know much about the ENGA. It appears to have been aa grouo modeke on the Balilla. Even before the Italian invasuion there was a substantial Italian presence in Albania. The Italians when they invaded Albania (1939) established a Albanian Fascist Party which in reality rather than a nationalist group was a front organization for Italian control of the country. Italy invaded Albania, but did not annex the country. Albania nominally remained a separate country. King Victor Emnauel replaced King Zog as king if Albania. The Albanian Lictor Youth (Djelmnia e Liktorit Shqiptar / Gioventù del Littorio Albanese--GLA) was the youth organization of the Albanian Fascist Party. The GLA was one of the associated organizations of the Albanian Fascist Party, stipulated in its founding statute, formalized by a decree issued by the Italian vicegerent (June 2, 1939). Giovanni Giro was assigned to set up a Fascist youth movement shortly before the Italanian invasion. He was largely usuccessful, but did manage to stir up a diolomatic incident. After the Italian invasion (April 1939), anotherv Utalian Fascist was assuigned to organize a Fascist party and assocted organizations--Achille Starace. Starace was an important Fascist organizer. After creating the GLA, the small ENGA group was merged into it.

Austria

There must have been a variety of nationalist youth groups that were formed in the 1920s after World War I, but we have little information about them at this time. The Heimwehr (similar to the German Freikoros) appears to have had a youth movement. The Hitler Youth movement had an Austrian organization, but was banned by the Government. Even so, it operated sureptiously. After the Anschluss, Austria was annexed into the Reich. German law immediately took affect and all youth organizatioins except the Hitler Youth were banned. There was no separate Austrain Hitler Youth. Austrian boys participated in the Hitler Youth program. After the Anschluss all Austrians except Jews became German citizens.

Belgium

The most important youth movement in Belgium has been the Scouts, although the movement has been split along nationalist lines. There have also been uniformed youth groups sponsored by political parties. This has been especially true of right-wing parties and Flemish nationalist groups. The Belgian political situation before, during and after World War II was extremely complicated, and incidentally still highly controversial. During the German World War II occupation there were NAZI-oriented right-wing youth groups in both Flanders and Walonia. After the war the the Vlaams Nationaal Jeugdverbond (Flemish National Youth Organization) was organized to promote an independent Flemish state.

Bulgaria

King Boris seized control of the Bulgarian Government justifying it as necessary to prevent the Communists from seizing power. The King essentially ruled as a dictator in a 'Regime without Parties'. He did not, however have a political party to generate popular support for his rule. Efforts to generate public support included an initistive to organize Obshtestvena Sila (Public Force), a kind of non-political political party or civic organization, but nothing much came from it. A more successful effort was organizing a Bulgarian nationalistic youth group--the Brannik. This meant Guardians. The Brannik compete with the Communists and Legionairs who were alreading recruiting young people. The Government wanted a nationalist group that was royalist, but non-political. The Government supported the group by paying the salaries of the adult leaders. Chapters were organized in high schools, but not in village schools. Thus it was a mioddle-class organization. Failure to organize at the village level meant that few peasant boys were involved in the organization. There were leather belts with a shoulder strap. The salute was similsr to the Legionars, raising the hand from the elbow. There was an influence of the Hitler Youth, but there was no strong ideological component, only nationalism and support for the King. Membership was open to all young people, both boys anjd girls, although organizing it in secondary schools significantly restricted membership. Membership was optional, but there were advantages concerning educational advancement and careers. Thuis quite a number of secondary school youth joined. In the heated political climate of the 1930s, uniforms were popular with young people. The Brannik was quickly a much larger group than the Boy Scouts. One source suggests that membership in the Brannik was seen by The Communjists and other opponents of the regime as a cover for cladestine activities. There was little vetting by the organizers who were anxious to reports large numbers to their superiors. [Raĭkin, pp.145-47.] Bulgria was compeled to join the Axis after Hitler launched World War II. Ther was a Fascist movement in Bulgaria, but not as strong as in neighboring Hungary and Romania.

Croatia

The NAZIs after invading Yugoslavia (April 1941) partionioned the country. Crotia was created as a new puppet state. Croatian separtists had sought to create an independent state even before the invasion. They received support from Musssolini's Fascist Government in Italy. After the invasion, Croatia became the most compliant of all the pro-NAZI regimes. A Italian prince was installed as king, but the regime was controlled by the Ustashi. The Croatia Utashi launched perhaps the most deadly of all the World war II Holocausts. The Ustashi not only targeted Jews and Gypseys, but also Orthodox Sebian Christians in Croatia and Bosnia. The NAZIs included Bisnia in the Croatia state. We understand that the Croatians founded a youth group known as the Eagles, but we have not yet been able to find information about the group. We would be very interested in any information about the Eagles that HBU readers might be able to provide.

Czechoslovakia

We have no information on Czechoslovakian natioanlist youth groups at this time. There may have been some organized on national lines such as Czech and Slovak. German boys in the Sudetenland wanted to join the Hitler Youth, but the organization was banned in Czechoslovakia. Some of these boys would travel to Germany to participate in Hitler Youth events in the Reich. There were incidents when Czech customs officials found their uniforms when they returned to Czecoslovakia. After Munich (October 1938) and the subsequent NAZI occupation of Czecoslovakia (March 1939), I do not note any nationalist pro-German youth groups being organized in the NAZI Protecorate of Bohemia and Moravia (eastern and Czechoslovakia). Such an organization is unlikely as the NAZI goal was to supress Czech nationalism, but also murder a substantial part of the Czech population as part of Generalplan Ost. This may have been different in Slovakia (western Czechoslovakia) which succeeded from Czechoslovakia and allied itself with NAZI Germany, but we have no actual information at this time. The Germans permitted nationalist youth grouos to function as part of puppet politicalparties only in countries with ethnivities seen as suitably or redeamably Aryan.

Denmark

The German invasion of neutral Denmark and Norway was launched April 9, 1940. The small Scandinavia country was occupied within hours. There was virtually no resistance. Denmark at the time had several pro-NAZI parties, not because there was a lor of NAZI sentiment, but because there was no one individual leader, like Vidkun Quisling, to dominate the movement. NAZI policy was to exploit Denmark economically and to eventually incorprate Denmark into the Reich. Thus they worked with the existing democratic Government rather than the Danish NAZIs (DNSAP) who were unable to generate support among the Danish populstion. Even after several years of occupation, the DNSAP was able to generate only minimal support, mostly from ethnic Germans in the southern part of the country. National Socialistiske Ungdom (NSU)The same was true of their youth group, the National Socialistiske Ungdom (NSU).

England

HBU has little information about nationalist English youth groups. We know of no really important groups. I think there have been realtively few, in part because of the importance of Scouting and the Boys' Brigade. An exception was Mosley's British Union of Fascists in the 1930s. I believe the small Mosley English-NAZI group tried to organize a youth movement, but it was of no real importance. They may have had a small youth group, but HBU has no details and doubts if it was of any importance. Not all Nationalist groups have been sinister groups like Mosley's Fascists. We note a few small, mostly loval groups. A least one modern group, the Rangers, have been formed because of the middle-class orientation and complicated beauracracy of Scouting. There appear to be a few indepenbdent nationalist groups, but the number of boys was very limited.

France

The authors have no information on non-Scout nationalist boys uniformed groups in France during the early 20th century. Some groups were organized by Vichy authorities during the World War II German occupation.

Germany

The Wandervogel was formed November 4, 1901, and became Germany's most important youth groups. It many ways they were similar to the Scouts stressing hiking and camping. There was also a strong participant in sport, much more so than the Scouts. The Wandervogel was partly a manifestation of the perceptible mood of boredom and restlessness appearance of Wilhelmian Germany was little more than a facade which concealed latent tensions beneath the surface. German youth during the 1920's were involved in an incredible diverse number of mostly small youth organiztions, perhaps as many as 2,000 such groups. Upon the seizure of power by the NAZIs in 1933, these groups were swept into the Hitler Youth movement.

Germanic Youth

The NAZIs during World War II conceived of several formations which were open to boys from all Nordic countries (Denmark, Flanders, the Netherlands, and Norway). One of these was the Germanische Reichsschulen (German National Schools). These schools were a joint effort of the Hitler Youth and SS. Three political military schools were set up: Valkenburg (naer Maastricht in Holland), Heijthuijsen (Holland), and Quatrecht (near Ghent in Belgium).

Greece

Greece like neigboring countries was swept up in the 1930s with highly nationalistic sentiment. Fascist political parties fed on this sentiment. We know of one natioinalist uniformed groups, the Ethniki Organosi Neolaias (EON--National Organization of Youth) which operated from 1936-40. This was a Fascist organization sponsored by the filo-fascist dictator. There are a lot of interesting things about this. First the dictator fought against the Fascists in World War II. There a political explanation on that. EON was very popular and boys and girls from democratic and even communist families joined, there is also an explanation on that.

Hungary

The only important Hungarian boys youth group we know is the Scouts. There was a right-wing, highly nationalist youth organization, the Hungarista Örszem (Hungarian Sentinels). The group was, however, very small. Hungary like other European countries had a right-wing Fascist organization--the Arrow Cross (Nyilaskeresztes Párt – Hungarista Mozgalom. It was led by Ferenc Szálasi. We are not sure to what extent the Hungarista Örszem was related to the pro-NAZI Arrow Cross, if any. The Hungarista Örszem was so small that virtually no information is available on the group. The 1942 photograph here, however, suggests that they were to some degree active in the schools. The country under German pressure joined the AXIS in World War II (October 1940) and Hitler rewarded the Hungarians with territorial awards, doubling the size of the country. Pál Teleki became Prime Minister again and Chief Scout of Hungary. Distraught that he could not keep Hungary out of World War II, he committed suicide (April 3, 1941). He was succeeded as Chief Scout by General Kisbarnaki Ferenc Farkas, Commander of Royal Ludvokia Akademia. German diplomats pushed for Hungary to ban Scouting which had an ethos inimical to the NAZI war effort. The NAZIs wanted to see a nationalist youth group, like the Hungarista Örszem. Similar groups along the lines of the Hitler Youth were promoted in many of the occupied countries and German allies. Scouting promoted an international brotherhood whereas the NAZIs wanted not only a radical reordering of European borders, but the murder of millions of unwanted ethnic groups as pat of Generalplan Ost. Farkas resisted this and as Scouting was so popular in Hungary, the Government supported Farkas. Hungarian officials having obtained desired territories, hoped to remain out of the actual fighting. This changed dramatically when Hitler ordered the invasion of the Soviet Union (June 1941). Hungary which was not consulted declared war, but did not participate in Barbarossa. After the Wehrmacht was stopped before Moscow and pushed back with heavy losses (December 1941), Hitler demanded Hungarian troops for the 1942 campaign. Hungarian Scouts during the War conducted many important activities. Three boys served as messengers and engaged in other helpful activities to support the War effort. The extreme right as the Germans exerted more pressure on Hungary gained influence. The Hungarian Scouting movement was affected and became increasingly militaristic and nationalistic during the War. The Germans allowed Hungary as an independent nation some latitude during the War. The Hungarian Scout movement was thus allowed to continue to function. They were able to maintain contact with the Boy Scouts International Bureau, the Polish Scout Headquarters in exile, and with Prince Gustav Adolf of Sweden, Chief Scout of Sweden and member of the World Scout Committee. This changed at the end of the War. Because of military disasters in the East, Hungary attempted to withdraw from the War. To stop this, Hitler seized control of Hungary (March 1944). The Hungarian Government ordered the Scouts to merge with the right-wing Hungarista Örszem. This was an attempt to give right-wing Örszem who had never been able to recruit many members, control of the substantial Scouting movement. As the Red Army drove west, Hungary became a battle ground of the War. The merger never really occurred to any degree in the chaos of war. After World War II when the country's Stalinist leaders banned Scouting, General Farkas remained Chief Scout of the Hungarian Scouts in Exile.

Ireland

There have been many Irish nationalist groups. The most famous of course is the Irish Revolutionary Army (IRA). While many young people--especially older teenagers have participated in the IRA, we are not sure to what extent younger boys did. Certainly the sons and younger brothers of IRA members knew about the IRA and served as lookouts and messengers. The IRA for much of its history has been a outlaw or secret organizxation and thus has not had uniforms. We do not know if there was any uniformed nationmalist group for younger boys. The Nationalist organisations (like the Cumman na Gael) also had youth sections - no real uniform though. These were absorbed into the Scouts of Ireland after independence.

Figure 3.--The Italian Bailall became a model for Fascist youth groups all over Europe. To insure total control over the country's youth, Scouting was abolished. Military training became an important component of the program.

Italy

Benito Muscolini's Italian Fascists seized power in 1922. They established a comprehensive youth movement for all ages from 8 years old on. Italy was the first European country in which the Fascists seized power and the first to set up a comprehensive national youth movement. After consolidating power, the Fascists in 1927 banned Scouting. This became the pattern in totalitarian countries. Unlike the Scouts, the Italian Fascists had no international orientation. One element of Fascist ideology was ravid nationalism and intolerance toward other national and racial groups.

Luxembourg

The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg did not have a strong pro-NAZI faction at the onset of World War II. Many Germans lived in Luxembourg and an imitation Hitler Youth was founded in 1936 when non-German youth were not allowed to enroll in the Luxembourg branch of the Hitler Youth. German policy after Luxembourg was seized in 1940 was to incorporate it in to the Reich.

Netherlands

The Netherlands borders Germany and the Dutch are related to the Germany linguistically and ethnically. Many Germans lived in the Netherlands. The Germans in World War I respected Dutch neutrality and the Dutch after the war gave scantuary to the Kaiser after he abdicated (November 1918). Quite a number of right-wing Fascist parties were formed in the inter-war era, many had youth wings. The principakl youth group, however, was the Boy Scouts (de Nederlandse Padvinders). Strangely for susposedly nationalist parties, several advocated union with Germany. There was some support for these groups even before the German invasion in 1940. The Germans did not respect Dutch neutrality in World War II. Interest in the NAZI-approved party increased markedly in the early years of the War when many thought that the Germans would win. Participation in the principal Fascist youth movement, the Jeugdstrom, also increased.

Norway

HBU does not know of any uniformed boys' youth groups, except the Boy Scouts, in Norway before the NAZI invasion of April 1940. The Norwegian Government in fact had banned the wearing of political uniforms in 1935 so political parties could not organize uniformed youth units. This changed almost over night after the German invasion when a a virtual riot of adult uniforms appeared. This was especially the case after Hitler officially asppointed Vidkun Quisling "Minister President". The Quisling and the NAZI occupation authorities organized a youth group and tried to recruit older boys for the war effort. Scouting was banned. Few Norwegian boys, but in 1941 Scouting and other youth groups were banned and all Norwegian boys had to join the Nasjonal Samling youth movement, the Umghird.

Poland

We have no information on Poland at this time. We do not know if there was any nationalist youth movement before World war II. As far as we know, Scouting was the principal youth movement in Poland. There may have been nationalist youth groups in Poland before World War II. We note boys wearing uniforms that were not Scouts. Many politcal groups in European countries sponored youth groups and we believe this occurred in Poland, but have no actual information at this time. Hopefully our Polish readers wll help supply some information here. After the NAZI invasion (September 1939), Poland was partiononed. Large areas of Poland were annexed to the Reich. A Government General was created centered in Warsaw, but the Germans could not find compliant Poles to serve in the administration. As the NAZIs wanted to destroy Polish national identity, there was no nationalist youth movement created as was the general NAZI pattern in many other countries. . Poland was also invaded by the Soviet Union which at the time was cooperatring with the NAZIs. The Soviets introduced the Young Pioneers in their eastern occuoation zone. The NAZIs quickly overran this area when they invaved the Soviet Union (June 1941).

Portugal

António de Oliveira Salazar, seized control of Pprugal (1932). The Salazar regime was aithoritarian which gradually took on Fascist trappings, especially after the advent of the Spanish Civil war (1936). The Goverment issued a decree establishing a nationalist youth group--the Mocidade Portuguesa (Portuguese Youth) (May 1936). We believe the Boys Scouts were banned, but do not have detaols at this time. Prof. Marcelo Caetono was apointed the group's leader (1940). Their motto was 'Deus, Pátria e Família' [God, Fatherland and Family]. There were four echelons according to age: lusitos ( 7 to 10 years), infantes (10 to 14), vanguardistas (14 to 17) and cadetes (17 up). Their uniform consisted of a green shirt with badges on the left side of the breast, beige shorts and black shoes. A reader writes, "I have never come accross them in Portugal proper but I have seen some boys (black and white) in Angola during 1967 and 1968. They all had short pants, but I believe at the time that in metropolitan Portugal the older boys wore longs." Caetono who led the Mocidade since 1940 who became the acting Portuguese head of state after Salazar was incapacitated by a stroke (1968), The Mocidade were abolished on the very first day of the Socialist Revolution (April 25, 1974). A book Mocidade Portuguesa: Breve história de uma organização salazarista (1976) published after the Revolution seems to give a good account of the history and the activities of the "Mocidade".

Romania

Both Fascism and Communism grew in importance after the Depression began and the NAZIs seized power in Germany. This affected the attitudes of toung people and extremist groups began to organize with youth auxileries. Scouting remained a largely apolitical oasis among the increasingly devisive Romanian society. Romanian was becoming ungonvernable King Carol II seized control of the Government and adopted dictatorial powers (1937). The Government established the National Renaissance Front to replace the fractous parliamentary system. The Government closed down the Scouting movement and other youth groups to create the Străjeria--a single national youth group as a unifying step. There were both a boys and girls division. Romania was forced by the NAZIs to enter the Axis and eventually World War II as a German ally.

Slovakia

Slovakia succeeded from Czechoslovakia just as the NAZIs invaded the country in violation of the Munich Agreenent (March 1939). A compliant pro-NAZI puppet state was created (1939-45). We do not know at this time if the pro-NAZI regime created a youth group. Most of the NAZI puppet states as well nas some occupied countruies had Fascist youth groups modeled in the Hitler Youth. Slovakia is today an independent country, having succeeded from Czechoslovakia again, this time after the Cold War and Vekvet Revolution (1993). We know of no nationalist youth group in modern Slovakia.

Spain

Generalisimo Francisco Franco after defeating Republican, antil clearical forces, set up a totalitarian state and created the Falange political party to goven the state. The Falange created its own uniformed youth group. HBC at this time, however, has only limited information on the Falange youth group and the Falange's policy on the Scouts.

Switzerland

HBU does not know of any Swiss nationalist groups. That does not mean that none were organized, but we know of none at this time. Switzerland is a multi-national country and it would probably be difficult to organize a natioinalist group which is usually based on a common national identity. Italian Balilla units may have been organized among Swiss Italians and Hitler Youth units among the German Swiss. Or perhaps the Swiss Government banned such groups. HBC has noted NAZIs cultivated German populations in all neigboring countries. The only exception in the historical record os Swizerland, although this may simply reflect HBC's limited information on Switzerland. HBC has no authoriative information at this time to indicate whether or not there was interest among German and Italian Swiss or if the Government adopted any policy on such organizations. In fact, the Scouts with their international orientation proved a more suitable youth organization for the Swiss. A Swiss reader reports, "I do not know of any such nationalist youth groups or Hitler Youth/Balilla units in Switzerland. I'd say that what HBC said is quite correct. Even if there were in Switzerland some crazy people to share Hitler's ideas, they did not impact on the general Swiss people and government, both being since centuries really proud of their independancy and neutrality. One of the aims of Fascist organizations like the Hitler Youth was to prepare boys for the military. Obviously was not the case in Switzerland where youth movements were dominated by the Scouts under more or less direct supervision of churches." HBC must add that although most people now view Hitler's ideas as crazy (perhaps evil is a better word), this was not a universally held idea in the 1930s.

Yugoslavia

We have very limited information about Yugoslavia. There were a range of nationalist organizations, but this is very complicated because many were ethically based and not national organizations. I believe there were also organizations with religious and political foundations and well as groups with over-lapped these various elements. Building a natinalist youth organization in such a divided country would have been difficult, but there were many different youth groups in the various constiuent parts of Yugoslavia. After the German World War II invasion, Yugoslavia was partinioned between Germzany, Italy, and their Balkan partners. Croatia became a NAZI ally. Presumably they had some form of NAZI youth group. Ther may have been other Fascist groups formed in the other areas occupied Yugoslavia. The Hitler Youth was established in the area of Sklovenia annexed to the Reich.

Sources

Raĭkin, Spas. Rebel with a Just Cause: A Political Journey against the Winds of the 20th Century Vol. II.