The Cold War: Albania (1944-92)

Figure 1.--Red Army Marshal Zhukov has to be the greatest military commnder of World War II. He saved Lenningrad and mastermined the great Soviet offenses: Moscow (1941), Stalingrad (1942), Kursk (1943), Bagration (1944), and Berlin 1945). Actually that as strange as it mnay seem put him in danger. Stalin envied his achievements. Stalin was afraid of horses so it was Zukov who rode the famous white horse at the Moscow victory parade. Beria began undermining Zukov, arresting and torturing his subordinates. Khruschev rehabitated him for a time. Khruschev blamed Stalin for the split with Yugoslavia and tried to bring Tito back into the Soviet fold. The press caption here read, "Marshal Georgi Zhukov cuddles a child upon arrival at the airport here as part of his recent state visit to Yugoslavia and Albania. When Zhukov returned to Russia, he learned that he had been relieved of his post as Soviet Defense Minister and that another suitable post was being sought." The photograph was dated October 31, 1957. Apparently Khruschev, who Zukov had saved from the Anti-Party Group, decided that Zukov had become too powerful and moved against him while he was safely out of the way in Albania.

The Germans, after the Italian surreder to the Allies in World War II, occupied Albania (1943). The resistance to the Italian and German occupation during World War II came primarily from Communist Partisan forces led by Enver Hoxha. Reverses in the East and West forced the Germams to withdraw from the Balkans (1944). Hoxa and the Partisans were the only organized military force in Albania. Thus Hoxa in the wake of the German withdrawl became head of an Albanian government. Hoxa and the Communists declared a people's republic (1946). The Communists confiscated private land holdings and nationalized the country's limited industries. Hoxha proved to be a paranoid renegade in Stalin's post-War Eastern European empire. Hoxha made Albania into one the most reclusive and repressive countries in the world. Albania before the War had been a relatively poor area of Europe. Under Hoxha it became even poorer. Marshal Tito and the much stronger Yugoslav Army was in a position to control Albania. When Yugoslavia left the Soviet bloc in 1948, Albania broke its ties with that country and became first an ally of the Soviet Union. This essentially protected him from a possible Yugoslav invasion. Hoxha joined the Soviet-controlled Warsaw Pact when it was formed (1955). Albania under Hoxa was throughly Stalinist. The most renowned modern Albanian author is Ismail Kadare. He was once asked if he could be described an Albanian Solzhenitsyn. Kadare replied, "dissidence was a position no one could occupy, even for a few days, without facing the firing squad. On the other hand, my books themselves constitute a very obvious form of resistance." Hoxha subsequently broke with the Soviets and became a Chinese ally when the two Communist superpowers split (1961). China's primary advantage in Hoxa's eyes was thst it was far away. Ties with China were severed in 1978. Hoxa proved to be the longest serving (ruleing is perhaps more accurate at the time of his death in 1985. Hoxha was the longest-serving head of a Communist country. Albania was a poor country before World War II. Hoxa's Communist economic policies made it even poorer. He turned Albania into a hermit kingdom. Under Hoxa and Communism the economy became a disaster. Even commecial relations with neigboring countries with discouraged. Vast amounts of money were spent on pointless military projects preparing for an invasion that never came. Concrete pill boxes still litter the countryside. He maintained a policy of isolation until he died (1985). His principal achievement was leaveing the country desperately poor--the porest in Europe. His successor was Ramiz Alia who slowly began to moderate Albania's isolation and reengage with Europe. Alia established diplomatic relations with many countries. Albania began to participate in Balkan affairs. By this time, however, Communism in Eastern Europe had begun to lose power. The process accelerated after the fall of the Berlin Wall (1989). After decades of disaterous Communist rule, Albania was an ecomonic basket case. Once Communist police state border controls were lifted, thousands of Albanians fled accross the Adriatic to Italy seeking jobs (August 1991). The Italians returned most of them to Albania. Sali Berisha, a heart surgeon, was elected Albania's first non-Communist president since World War II (April 1992). In perhaps the last chapter of the Cold war, Serbia conducted ethnic cleansing military operations in Kosovo (a Serbian province) driving Kosovars (ethnic Albanians) out of Kosovo into Albania (1999). More than a million Kosovars were displaced. After American-led NATO actions, the Serbs withdrew from Kosovo and the Kosovars were able to return to their homes.

World War II

Mussolini's Facist Italy while te world was focused on the German seizure of Czecoslovakia seized Albania (April 1939). Unlike NAZI aggresion, this received little attention. A few months later, Hitler and Stalin launched World war II (September 1939). Mussolini then launched his invaion of Greece from Albania without consulting Hiler (October 1940). This was onbe of many exmples of Axis powers failing to oordinate milurary actions. The Greeks then drove the Italians back. Hitler came to Mussolini's recue by invading Yugoslavia and Greece (April 1941). The Germans, after the Italian surreder to the Allies in World War II, occupied Albania (September 1943). The resistance to the Italian and German occupation during World War II came primarily from Communist Partisan forces led by Enver Hoxha. Reverses in the East and West forced the over-extended Germams to withdraw from the Balkans (October 1944). This left Hoxa and the Partisans as the only organized military force in Albania. Thus Hoxa in the wake of the German withdrawl became head of an Albanian government.

People's Republic (1946)

Hoxa and the Communists declared a people's republic (1946). The Communists confiscated private land holdings and nationalized the country's limited industries. Hoxha proved to be a paranoid renegade in Stalin's post-War Eastern European empire. Hoxha made Albania into one the most reclusive and repressive countries in the world. Albania before the War had been a relatively poor area of Europe. Under Hoxha it became even poorer.

Stalinist Era (1948-61)

Marshal Tito and the much stronger Yugoslav Army was in a position to control Albania. When Yugoslavia left the Soviet bloc in 1948, Albania broke its ties with that country and became first an ally of the Soviet Union. This essentially protected him from a possible Yugoslav invasion and the Soviets had no common border with Albania limiting potential influence. Hoxha did follow Stalin's influence and remamed the Communist Party the Albanian Labor Party (APL). Hoxha joined the Soviet-controlled Warsaw Pact when it was formed (1955). Albania under Hoxa was throughly Stalinist. The most renowned modern Albanian author is Ismail Kadare. He was once asked if he could be described an Albanian Solzhenitsyn. Kadare replied, "... dissidence was a position no one could occupy, even for a few days, without facing the firing squad. On the other hand, my books themselves constitute a very obvious form of resistance." Hoxha's chief enforcer and closest associate was Mehmet Shehu from the World War II Partisan era.

American Response (1949-54)

The inital American response to Stalin and the Cold war was to use some of the same tactics used against the NAZIs in World War II. This meant efforts to foment popular rebellion. The newly organized Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) developed plans for such efforts throughout the Soviet Empire. Albania seemed the most isolated and weakest of the new Soviet sattllite countries. One historian has looked into the CIA operations in Albania. He writes, "In late afternoon on November 11, 1950, a rickety truck pulled up to a Douglas C-47 Skytrain airplane parked n the tarmac of a small military airstrip located twelve miles northeast of Athens, Greece. The plane was pinted blackand lacked any insignia or identification numbers on its body. Nine men jumped from the truck, unloaded seven bundles, and then climbed aboard the C-47 .... A German Schmeisser sunmachine gunwas strapped to ]each man's] chest. Three magazines of amunitin were attached to the belt, tgether with a Walther P-38 pistol and magazine, commando knife, jack knife, map, compass, and a flash light .... Each man had a poison 'L' pill sewn on the collar of the snow suit in such a way that he could reach down and bite on it even if his hands were tied behind his back, The death would instantaneous and would save them from the horrendoustortures that awaited them if they were captured aliv." [Luushi] The operation was a total failure. The CIA case offcers were inexperiebces and no match for experienced, ruthless Stalinist adversaries. Other factors were rivalries within the CIA nd the division among antiCommunist Albanian groups. The men were captured and subjected to a to be expected sow trial. A CIA analysis of the testimony of the defendents found 'psycological preconditioning of the defendants by hypnosis, brainwshing, drugs, or other means." [Lulushi] The CIA would find that it was poorly suited to conduct such operations against the very caable NKVD and its satelllite allies. And it would find that outside intrevetion was not necessary to stimulate rebellion. The inherent falacies of Communism and Socialism generated possibe rebillions as soon as the Stalinist controls were weakened even slightly after the 20th Party Congress. Rebellions not only broke out, but were often launched by wrkes, the very people exected to be backbone of Communist rule. And hese rebellions broughout a basic weakness in American policy. The rebellions could nevered suceed as long as the Soviets were prepared to use the Red Army to mainntain their empire. American intervention such as to aid the Hungarian freedom fighters would be likely to lunch another world war. Besides the dangers involved, prmoing rebellion, but being unwilling to support the rebels wa an obviously futile and dishonorable approach to meeing the Soviet threat to democracy.

Break with the Soviets (1961)

Unlike other Eastern Europanm Communist countrie, Albnia did not maintain a fasade of socialist solidarity. Hoxha kept caling Tito a a 'fascist' and complained about his treatment of Kosovars (ethnic Albanians). This was at a time when Khrushchev as trying to heal the split with Yugoslavia. Hoxha was dis satisfied with the COMECON plan for integrating the East European as part of the Sovier empire. TheSoviet promoted a role for Albania -- producing agricultural products and minerals rather than financing heavy industry. Khrushchev on a 12-day visit to Albania pushed the idea that their country should become 'socialism's orchard' (1959). Hoxha and Shehu were not impressed. They as true Communists wanted heavy idustry. This was the beginning of the splt with the Soviets. Tiny Albanaia wouklld play a role out of all propprtions in t slit in the Communist world. Albania began aligning itself with the People's Republic of China (PRC). [Vickers and Pettifer, p. 210.] Hoxha was a Stalinist and objected to Khrushchev'd Destalinization effort, meaning peaceful coexistence, de-Stalinization, and Yugoslavia's 'separate road to socialism through decentralization of economic life. The Soviet Union, other Eastern European countries (at Soviet insistance), and China all offered Albania significant aid packages. Soviet leaders promised to build a large Palace of Culture in Tirana as a symbol of the Soviet people's "love and friendship" for Albanians. Hoxha apparently saw the Chinese-Sovier split as a way to safely engineer his own break from the Soviets and the defy Soviert economic pressure along with the difference on ideological issues. The Chinese assured them of support (May-June 1960). Hoxha openly sided with the Chinese. A young Ramiz Alia, a candidate-member of the Politburo and Hoxha's adviser on ideological questions, personally worked on rather vitriolic rhetoric. It all broke into the open at the Romanian Workers' Party Congress (June 1960). Khrushchev wanted a condemnation of the PRC from its Eastern European satellites. The Albanian delegation, alone among the European delegations, refused and supported the Chinese. The Soviet Union retaliated by attempting to punish Hoxha. They organized a campaign to oust Hoxha and Shehu (summer 1960). Moscow canceled promised grain deliveries that the Albanians needed a a esult of a drought The Soviets from their embassy encourage a pro-Soviet ALP faction to criticize Party's pro-Chinese position. The Soviets went much furthr and promoted a an APL plot to replace Hoxha and Shehu. Hoxha in resonse broke with the Soviets and became a vocal Chinese ally when the split in the Communist world became punlic (1961). No doubt that Hoxha liked that China being far emoved. Even so, he would eventually sever his ties with China (1978). He apparently rejected to the beginning of market reforms.

The Hermit Kingdom: Results of Communist Rule

Hoxa proved to be the longest serving (ruleing is perhaps more accurate tterm at the time of his death in 1985. Hoxha was the longest-serving head of a Communist country. Albania was a poor country before World War II. Hoxa's Communist economic policies made it even poorer. He turned Albania into a hermit kingdom. Under Hoxa and Communism the economy became a disaster. Even commecial relations with neigboring countries with discouraged. Vast amounts of money were spent on pointless military projects preparing for an invasion that never came. Concrete pill boxes still litter the countryside. This was done at a time when people lived in inadequate condutions. He maintained a policy of isolation until he died (1985). His principal achievement was leaving the country desperately poor--the porest in Europe. Vast sums were spent on defense in a despeately poor country. Hoxha as part of his isolation policies had over 173,000 concrete bunkers built all over the country. [Hapet dosja] Each of these bunkers had enough cocrete and other materials to build a family home, proably two. Given a family size of five this was housing for more than a million Albaniams. This was something like a third of the Albanian population of about 2.9 million people at the time.

Succession

Hoxha's chosen successor was Ramiz Alia. He began grooming him (1980). He surprised most Albanians, including Party leaders, by not choosing his close associate Mehmet Shehu. Shehu was a hardliner and had played a major role in the Partians seiing powerat thend of World War II. His relationship with Hoxha was often seen as powersharing. He had a reputation for brutality and may have thought that Hoxha could not sucessfully pass over him. Hoxha tried to get Shehu agree to this voluntarily and just step aside. Shehu vwas not having it. He had come to think of himself as Hoxha's successor and was not going to give up his dream. Hoxha in the end dominated the Politburo, The first step was to driticize him for permitting son to become engaged to the daughter of a former bourgeois family. He then began a thoouh purge Shehu's family and his supporters in the Party and especially the police and army. Finally he was accused of being a spy plotting to asssinate Hoxha. Officially Shehu commited suiside (1981). Many believe Hoxha had him murdered. It was fitting end for someone who had ordered the execution of mamy. A Soviet leader one quoted Shehu's attitude toward governing, "Whoever disagrees with our leadership in any respect, will get spat in the face, punched on the chin, and, if necessary, a bullet in his head." Hoxha in his memoirs wrote, "He was buried like a dog." Alia gradually took over Hoxha's duties. He began substituing for Hoxha at major events. He also began delivering major policy speeches, always pepered with admiring litanies to the increaingly incapcitated president. Hoxha died at just the time that momentous events were underway in the Soviet Union, events that he could not have dreamed of (1985) . Mikhail Gorbachev was appointed general secretary of the Soviet Communist Party. After Hoxha's death, Alia became presidenct and in short order APL Secretary. Shehu began to assume the position Hoxha had held. He began to assume the role of a totalitarian dictator. His face began to dominate Albanian media and his slogans replaced Hoxha's on the numerous billboards located all over the country.

Rengagement with Europe (1985-89)

Ramiz Alia after Hoxha died established maintained firm control over Albania's Communist security apparatus. What he could not do, however, was to make ignificant imprivements in the economy. The iron laws of economic that undermined Communism in other countrie, operated in Albania as well. Albania's failed economy meant that Alia had to launch reforms. Acttually this was apolicy that ultimately Hoxha had to relictantly initiate in amodest degree. Alia moved to reestablished diplomatic relations with West Germany which ofereded development aid. He also cortrf Italy and France. [Abrahams, pp. 28–29.] The very gradual and slight reforms intensified as General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev introduced new policies of glasnost (openess) and perestroika (reform/restructuring) in the Soviet Union. This eventually led to the fall of the Berlin Wall (November 1989) and the collapse of Soviet imposed communist governments thrroughout Eastern Europe. Alia slowly began to moderate Albania's isolation and behin a reengagement with Europe. Alia established diplomatic relations with many countries. Albania began to participate in Balkan affairs. By this time, however, Communism in Eastern Europe had begun to lose power. And Alia could not easily the masive damage done to the Albanian economy by Hoxha's totaltarian and socialist policies. Albania was the opporest country in Europe before World War II and Hoxha's Communist policies only wosened this situation while at the same time Western Europe experienced an economic miracle and even Yugoalvia under Tuto's style of comminism imprived. There is no way that Alia could have transformed Albania and his continued belief in Communism meant that the needed reforms (as with Gorbechev) in the Soviet Union would have only aminimal impact.

Fall of Communiusm (1989-92)

Alia's process of reegagement accelerated after the fall of the Berlin Wall (November 1989). Even more important was probably the execution of Communist dictator Nicolae Ceauşescu and his wife in Romania (December 1989). Alia began accelerating reforms. It is diffficult to avoid the conclusion that he bwas likely to have the same unhappy end if he did not launch radical changes. He agreed to Helsinki Agreement which other countries had adopted in 1975. That meant changes in Albania's policy toward basic human rights. After decades of disaterous Communist rule, Albania was an ecomonic basket case, in even worse shape than the other Communist states in Eastern Europe. An exodous from Albania began. Despite the dangers, substantial numbes of people began fleeing the country. With change inthe air the border guards became somewhat less vigilent and quick to shoot. Alia under increasing pressure from students and workers, announced that the ALP no lonher inisisted on the exclusive right to rule (December 11, 1990). This meant that other political parties could legally organize. He also announced that free elections would be held in spring 1991. Alia's ALP won the elections under a 1991 interim law (March 31, 1991). They were the first free elections held in decades. Despite the electoral victory, change was on the way and it was clear even to ALP stawarts that it could not be stopped. The ALP government fell 2 months later as a result of a general strike. A committee of 'national salvation' took over but collapsed after only 6 months. Once Communist police state border controls were lifted, thousands of Albanians began fleeing accross the Adriatic to Italy seeking jobs, virtually any jobs (August 1991). The Italians returned most of them to Albania. The ALP was decisively defeated by the Democratic Party in national elections. Sali Berisha, a heart surgeon, was elected Albania's first non-Communist president since World War II (April 1992). The Democratic Party began to implement the reforms it had promoted. The problems created by Hoxha and Communism, however, were enormous, not something a new government with limited resources could easily or quickly address.

Kosovo

In perhaps the last chapter of the Cold war, Serbia conducted ethnic cleansing military operations in neighboring Kosovo (a Serbian province) driving Kosovars (ethnic Albanians) out of Kosovo into Albania (1998-99). More than a million Kosovars were displaced. After American-led NATO actions, the Serbs withdrew from Kosovo and the Kosovars were able to return to their homes.

Sources

Abrahams, Fred C. Modern Albania: From Dictatorship to Democracy. ( NYU Press: 2015).

Hapet dosja, ja harta e bunkerëve dhe tuneleve sekretë.

Lulushi, Albert. Operation Valuable Fiend: The CIA's First Paramilitary Strike Against the Iron Curtain (2014), 368p. Lulushi was Albanian and lived through the disater and oppressin of Albanian Communism. He left for the West (1990). He has advised the U.S. Government n Albanian and Kosovo affairs.

Vickers, Miranda and James Pettifer. Albania: From Anarchy to a Balkan Identity (1999).

Created: 9:29 PM 7/1/2014
Last updated: 2:19 AM 5/17/2019