Figure 1.--This African American nanny poses with her little charge who looks to be about 4 years old. He wears a plaid tunic with long pants. She must have been an important member of the family to be photographed with her young charge. She has a half smile playing on her lips. We are left to wonder what she was thinking. The CDV portrait is undated, but the pose (more like a Daguerreotype pose) and the boy's outfit suggests that it was a very early CDV, perhaps before or the very beginning of the Civil War. The photographer was George W. Evans, Philadelphia. Click on the image for a fuller discussion.

The history of black Americans before the Civil War primarily focuses on slavery. While most blacks lived in the South as slaves, there were free blacks in both the northern and southern states. The northern states relatively soon after the Revolution move to abolish slavery. This was done state by state. While slavery was abolished, not all slaves were immediately emancipated in the North. Northern blacks became a largely urban population, in contrast to southern blacks. Blacks were involved in a range of mostly mannual occupations, in large measure because of limitations on educational opportunity. Women often worked as family domestics. Despite the open racism in the United Sttes, interesting there seems to have been realtively little interest among free blacks to return to Africa, even after the American Colonization Society set up a settlent which would become Liberia. Even when emancipated, blacks in the south were not afforced full civil rights such as the franchise. There was also resistance in allowing black children to attend public schools. And the Supreme Court Dread Scott decision essentially meant that blacks even in Free Staes could not be citizens.

English Colonial Period

The history of black Americans before the Civil War primarily focuses on slavery. While most blacks lived in the South as slaves, there were free blacks in both the northern and southern states. The numbers were relativekly small, the result of slave owners freeing their slaves, often in their wills. The colonial period ended before the English abolition movement had gained much strength.

Revolutionary War (1776-83)

Blavks were involved in the Revolutionary War from the very beginning. There was a black killed in the Boston Massacre. Blacks served on both sides of the War. Quite a number of blacks, mosdtly in the Northm gained their freedom as a result of milirary service in the War. Questions of freedom and liberty were raised during the Revolution. Many Americans fighting forvtheir freedom found it difficult slavery for others. The issue in the North was not complicated by economic factors and larger populations as was the case in the South. Many understoof the role that black soldiers had played in the fighting.

Articles Era and Early Federal Period

The northern states relatively soon after the Revolution moved to abolish slavery. This was done state by state without any Federal intervention. Northern state legislatures began passing laws after the Revolutionary War freeing slaves. The laws varied from state to state. In some states emancipation was immedite. In other states it was gradual. There were about 59,000 free blacks in America (1790). [Census of 1790] Slightly less than half or 27,000 were located in the North. The new Federal Contitution side-stepped the slavery issue (1787). There was a provision for ending the slave trade and a provision for counting slaves for purposes of representation. Slavery itself was left entirely to the states. Nor was the issue if civil rights for freed blacks addressed. Citizen was also left to the states. Gradually after the turn-of-the 19th century, even with states providing for gradual emancipstion, slavery disappeared from the north and each state had small populations of free blacks.

Demographics

Northern blacks became a largely urban population, in contrast to southern blacks.

Employment

Blacks were involved in a range of mostly mannual occupations, in large measure because of limitations on educational opportunity. Of course most white Americans at the time also worked at mannual occupations. Women often worked as family domestics. Some blacks found work at tobacco plants, the textile mills, and other early factories. While the Northern states abolished slavery and emancipated slaves, that did not mean that racial prejudice was absent. Most northern white believed that hile slavery was wrong, blacks were inferior to hites, especially intelectully inferior. Most believed that blacls were not up to the demands of citizenship. And what would be called segreagation developed in the North. This was largekly a matter of individual actions and social convention rather thn laws establishihing segregation. Many propriters of hotels, theaters, restaurants, stores and other businesses often refused to service blacks although they often employed blacks in meninal positions. Some blacks had obtained rudimentary education. Thus some were able to set themselves up as merchnts. A small number were sale to enter journalism. Samuel Cornish and John Russwurm founded the first black newspaper (1827). Other blacks entered the ministry oficiating in black churches. Relatively few blacks participated in the movenment west. Much of the literature of the ante-bellum north stresses the very real disvrimination and limits on black employment and economic aspirations. Often over looked is the fact that free blacks in the north had access to the American economy and laws protecting property. This was something that great majority of the wiorld's popultion in Asia, Africa, Latin America, and even much of Europe did not have access to. Thus there begin to form in the north a small black middle class.

Resettlement

Despite the open racism in the United Sttes, interesting there seems to have been realtively little interest among free blacks to return to Africa, even after the American Colonization Society set up a settlent which would become Liberia.

American Abolitionist Movement

Free blacks including runaways from the Southern slave states played an important role in the abolitionist movement. Most blacks in America were slaves and lived in the southern States. There were much smaller numbers of free blacks, mostly in the northern states as well as run-aways. African American in the north joined the anti-slavery movement and the struggle against racial descrimination in the North. Free states had abolished slavery, but did not make blacks citizens with civil rights such as the right to vote and serve on juries. (Jurors were often often frawn from the voting lists.) Black children often had difficulty attending public schools. Free blacks and runaways came to play an important role in the abolitionist movement. Fugitive slaves, including Frederick Douglass and William Wells Brown, provided first hand accounts of the evils of slavery. Black abolitionists encountered a division among white abolitionists. While all were opposed to slavery, many were not committed to citizenship and full civil rights. And probably most harbored some kind of racial prejudice in terms as not believing blacks were equalt to whites in mental and other abilities. Thus blacks in the movement commonly experienced a range of patronizing attitudes from the white leaders of themocement. Thus black abolitionists adopted a range of attitudes within the abolitionist movement. Many unable to do anyhing about slavery in the South beyond supporting the Underground Railway, focused their energies on self-help activities and civil rights in the North. Some despairing of ending white racism supported separatist projects, especially African emigration.

Civil Rights

Even when emancipated, blacks in the south were not afforced full civil rights such as the franchise, jury service, and other rights. There was also resistance in allowing black children to attend public schools. Colleges and universities refused to admit blacks. The first colleges to afmit black students were Bowdoin and Oberlin. Thus the abolitionist movement in the North also contended with the issue of civil rights. Finlly the issue iof citizenship and civil rights was seemingly settled by the Supreme Court Dread Scott decision. The court ruled essentially that blacks even in Free Staes could not be citizens.

Churches

Religion was very important in the 19th century. Large numbers of free blacks attended church. Northerm churches were at the center of the abolitionist movement, but this varied among the different demominations. Some like the Quakers and Methodists were at the center of the abolitionist movement. Other denominations were not significantly involved, although over the course of the 19th century, opposution to slavery eventually grew. Blacks at first ttended largely white churches. Usually they were required to sit together at the back or in small upper levels. Richard Allen, a black Philadelphia minister, helped found the first black denomination in America (1816).

Underground Railroad

Free blacks in the North played a major role in Underground Railroad, manning many stations nd helping runaways move north. The Underground Railroad is an icon of American mythology. Many school children are disappointed to learn that there were no locomotives, carriages, and it was not underground. But exist it did and it played a major role, not so much in freeing slaves, but in brining on the Civil War which did free the slaves. The Underground Railroad was a loosely organized and constantly changing network of individuals and families who assisted fugitive slaves reach free northern states and Canada. There was no central organization or organizer so southern and Fderal officials found it impossible to shut down. Recent scholarship suggests that many whites, but mostly blacks (both free and slave) were involved in operaing the Underground Railroad. Many of the whites were reliously motivated. Quakers and evangelical protestants played important roles.

Military Service

Created: 3:13 AM 3/8/2007
Last updated: 12:47 AM 5/10/2008