Figure 1.--

After centuries of Persian rule, the fabeled Persian Empire was destroyed by Alexander. After Alexander's death (323 BC), his generals (the Diadochi) divided his vast empire. Palestine was on a fault line between rival Greek kingdoms. Ptolemy invaded Palestine (320). The Battle of Ipsus fought to the north of Palestine was a major encounter between the the Diadochi settling the fate of Alexander's empire. (301 BC). Ipsus was a small village in Phrygia. Antigonus I Monophthalmus and his son Demetrius I of Macedon fought a coalition of three other companions of Alexander: Cassander (Macedon), Lysimachus (Thrace), and Seleucus I Nicator (Babylonia and Persia). This was the last effort to unite Alexander's empire. Antigonus had been the only general able to consistently defeat the other Successors. His death meant the end of Alexander's empire. Ptolemy held Egypt, Seleucus receiving the bulk of Antigonus' lands in the east and eastern Asia Minor, and Lysimachus receiving the remainder of Asia Minor. Seleucus would eventually defeat Cassander and Lysimachus (281 BC), but died shortly afterward. This began a period of conflict between the Ptolemic and Seleculid empires and Palestine was on the fault line between the two empires. For many years the Jews were controlled by the Ptolemies in Egyot. They were defeated bt the Seleucids under Antiochus III who the Jews joined (199 BC). The Jews helped Antiochus drive the Ptolemies from Jerusalem.

Alexander's Conquest of the Persian Empire

After centuries of Persian rule, the fabeled Persian Empire was destroyed by Alexander. Alexander put down a Greek revolt. He then led his army accross the Hellesport and launched his invasion of the Persian Empire which at the time extended west to Asia Minor (modern Turkey). Persian Emperor Darius III at first did not fully appreciate the danger posed by Alexander. In some of the great battles of the ancient world, Alexander destroyed huge Persian armies at Granicus (334 BC), Issus (333 BC), and Gaugamela (331 BC). Aleander reduced Tyre (332 BC) after whicvh the Egyptians recognized him as Pharaoh. He calls himself "Lord of Asia". While in Egypt he founds Alexandria which becomes one of the great city of the ancient world. Alexander after his great victory at Gaugamela persued Darius, hoping to capture him alive. Darius was killed by one of his generals, Bessus. The circumstances are disputed by historians. Alexander hunted down Bessus hunted down and then publicly flogged and executed. Alexander then returns Darius' boby to his family for a state funeral. Alexander after completing the conquest of the Persan Empire, pushed east to Bactria and enters India. Here his men refuses to go further. On the way back Alexander and his men sack and plunder cities. On one such assaukt, Alexander is almost killed by an arrow. He sends a fleet back under Nearchus. He returns to Persia on an overland route and he and his men suffer intensly in the overland route which passes through deserts. He finally reaches Susa (334 BC).

Division of Alexander's Empire

Alexander's death began a struggle forpowe among his commanders. The empire was soon torn apart by the power struggles among Alexander's commanders. His advisors and commanders are known as the Diadochi, the Greek word for "successors"). His son's first regent, Perdiccas, was killed by mutinous soldiers (321 BC). Antipater repaced him as regent, but died (319 BC). Polyperchon became regent, but was soom overthrown by Antipater's son Cassander. Olympias opposed Antipater's regency and she resisted his son. She made herself regent (317 BC). Cassander seized power, but hesitated to execute Alexander's mother himself. Cassander insteaddelivered Olympias relatives of individuals she had ordered killed. It was they who killed the queen mother. Cassanddr also ordered the death of both Roxane and Alexander IV (Alexander Aegus). The boy was 13 years old when he was killed. Cassander made himself king of Macedonia (305 BC). Palestine was on a fault line between rival Greek kingdoms.

Battle of Ipsus (320 BC)

Ptolemy invaded Palestine (320 BC). The Battle of Ipsus fought to the north of Palestine was a major encounter between the the Diadochi settling the fate of Alexander's empire. (301 BC). Ipsus was a small village in Phrygia. Antigonus I Monophthalmus and his son Demetrius I of Macedon fought a coalition of three other companions of Alexander: Cassander (Macedon), Lysimachus (Thrace), and Seleucus I Nicator (Babylonia and Persia). This was the last effort to unite Alexander's empire. Antigonus had been the only general able to consistently defeat the other Successors. His death meant the end of Alexander's empire. Ptolemy held Egypt, Seleucus receiving the bulk of Antigonus' lands in the east and eastern Asia Minor, and Lysimachus receiving the remainder of Asia Minor. Seleucus would eventually defeat Cassander and Lysimachus (281 BC), but died shortly afterward.

Helenistic Culture

Alexander's victories and the Greek kingdoms that resulted from it created a space in which Helemistic culture could spread. This meant a shift in philosophical outlook and modernizing ideas introfuced to the Middle East. Hellenisn emphasized the centrality of reason and the importance of individual conscience. For the first time, theaters, gymnasiums and debating societies appeared in the cities of the Middle East and this included Palestine. Along with the shifting outlook came economic improvements and raised living standards. Jerusalem was one of the many cities of the Middle East which benefited economically during the Helenistic Era.

Jewish Reformers

The Jews were one of the many Middle Eastern peoples influenced by the spread of Helenism. The Jews most affected were the urban Jews most exposed to the new ideas. Those Jews influenced by Helenism became interested in reform annd merging Helenism and Judaism. The Greeks sought to create an advanced universal culture centered on reason. The Jews also had a central concept, faith in the monotheistic idea of one true God. The Jewish reformers wanted to merge these two ideas, but merging reason and faith is no easy matter. Urbane Jews assimilated large parts of Greek culture. Many took Greek names like Jason. They exercised and debsated in the gymnasium. And they prospered economically. These were the urban Jews. Many Jews did not assimilate. This was the case even in the tiwns and cities and many in the rural age were largely untouched by the new ideas. Some in the cities resisted passively. Others fled from Jerusalem into the hills.

The Seleculid Empire

Seleculid Empire was on of the Helenistic sates resulting from the breakup of Amexander's Empire. It was founded by Seleukos. Conflict between the Ptolemic and Seleculid empires continued for years/ And Palestine was on the fault line between the two empires. For many years the Jews were controlled by the Ptolemies in Egypt. They were defeated bt the Seleucids under Antiochus III who the Jews joined (199 BC). The Jews helped Antiochus drive the Ptolemies from Jerusalem. The Seleucid dynasty were for many years tolerant toward the many religions and cults within their empire. Emperors even used imperial funds to promote the many diverse religions of its subjects.

Antiochus IV's Decrees (167 BC)

Seleucid Emperor Antiochus IV broke from Seleculid tradition. He issued a series of decrees aimed at the Jews. He moved to defile the temple, confiscate wealth, and ban Jewish religious practice. Those Jews found pracicing their religion faced the death penality. Even those refusing to eat pork could be killed. Historians are uncertain as to just why Antiochus did this. Some believe that he was working with extremist Jewish reformers who sought to destroy what they saw as the primitive, unreformed remnants of Judsaism. Other historians speculate that Antiochus came to the belief that the Jews were disloyal subjects--fifth columnists in modern parlance. His focus was on the conflict wuth the Ptolemies in Egypt and he was concerned thsat the Jews were working with the Ptolemies. Thus by destroying Judaism he thought that the Jews could be nore effectively assimilates into his Helenistic Empire.

Jewish Revolt (167-164 BC)

Despite the pressures on Judaism and the accendency of the Reformers in a Helenistic world, the Jewish traditionsalists were slow to revolt. Only with Antiochus' Decrees did thectraditionalists rise up. The revolt itself faced many problems. Not only did they have to face the Seleucid Army, but there wa aerious internal problem. Just who was a Jew? Many of the Reformers had become so Helenized that they they did not look like Jews to Jewish traditionsalists. Thus it is no accident that the first person to be killed in the revolt was a Helenized Jew. A Jew in Modin was sacrificing on a new Greek altar. He was slsin by Mattathias, the elderly head of a priestly family in the town. It was Mattathias’s five sons led by Judah Maccabee that proceeded to lead the revolt against the regime Seleucids. The insurgents became known as the Maccabees. They have been described as moderate nationalits. They did not absolutely reject Helenism. They themselves had been influenced by Helenism. The employed Greek constitutional language to describe themselves. They employed brutal measures in their campaign, not uncommon in such insurections. Many Reformners had failed to comply with Jewish traditions. When the Maccabees found uncircumcised Jews (the most obvious aspect of traditional Jews), they conducted forced circumcisions. They had no commitment to religious freedom among the Jewish community. Ironically there was a substantial degree of religious freedom prevalent in the Helenistic world until Antiochus' Decrees. The Maccabees saw religion as a collective matter, not subject to individual choice. The Maccabees suceeded in taking Jerusalem (164 BC). They rededicated and resanctified the temple.

Hanukkah

The Macabees created a new festival to commemorate their victory. Ironically it can be seen as part of Greek, not traditional Jewish, culture). Rabbis ecentually added the lamp miracle to give God a more important role. Hanukkah (Chanukah, Hanukah, or Hannuka). is known as the Festival of Lights. It is an 8-day Jewish holiday that usually celevrated between late-November and late-December. It is held to commemorate the victory of the Maccabees victory over the Seleucid Empire, often described as the Syrians. The Seleucid Empire was actually a Helenisdtic (Greek) empire centered on modern Syria. Hanukkah also celebrates the rededication of the Temple in Jerusalem. Jews celebrate with 8 nights of traditional ativities. This celebration has continued with Jews in the Diaspora around the world. Traditions include lighting the menorah, exchanging gifts, and enjoying foods treats cooked in oil.

Macabee Rule

The defeat of the Seleucids left the Macabees in control of an independent Jewish state. The Nacabees began electing their priests. Historians have described the Macabee regime as quickly becoming corrupt, brutal and reactionary. The concept of reform had been throughly discredited by the Hellenizing extremists and Antiochus. Religious practice under the Macbees stagnated. Scholarship declined as questioning orthodoxy became dangerous. The Maccabees became religious what can only be called religious oppressors as so many Jews had been Helenized. And it was the Macabees who would fatefully invite the Roman entry into Jerusalem.