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Berlin was at the center if the Cold War. Many believe that the Cold War began and ended in Berlin. The beginning would be the Soviet efforts to push the Western Allies out of Berlin. The end was the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989. Berlin was conquered by the Red Army in savage fighting during the end of April 1945. Stalin was intent on the Red Army taking the prize and lied to General Eisenhower about his intentions. Wehrmacht commanders west of Berlin could not understand why the Americand did not push for Berlin. When the Red Army approached his bunker, Hitler committed suicide. As decided at the Yalta Conference, the three principal Western Allies (Britain, France, and the United States) were given occupation zones in the conquered NAZI capital. As Berlin was located well within the Soviet occupation zone of Germany, all supplies had to pass through the Soviet zone. As a result, the Western allies and the Berlin people were vulnerable to Soviet pressure. This and the symbolic value of Berlin made it the focal point of the Cold War. It was at Berlin that the first major confrontation of the Cold War occurred. Stalin decided in 1948 that he could blockade Berlin and force the Western allies out and the people of West Berlin into submission. Ironically the people of West Berlin were saved by American and British pilots, in most cases the same men that only 3 years earlier had been bombing German cities and had reduced Berlin to ruble. President Truman was determined that the United States would not leave Berlin and a massive airlift was organized and even during the winter, more supploes were reaching Berlin than before tht Soviets had instituted the blockade. One of the pilots was struck by the Berlin children who still lived in desperate conditions after the War. The children of course had little idea of the larger issues involved, but were caught up in the episode when one of the pilots began dropping chocolates in little parachutes when he reached Berlin. Other pilots began doing the same. The Berlin children began calling him Uncle Chocolate and thousands wrote with directions as to how to how the American pilots could hit their homes! Finally with the success of the Airlift, Stalin relented and rail and road links were reopened in 1949.
Berlin was at the center if the Cold War. Many believe that the Cold War began and ended in Berlin. The beginning would be the Soviet efforts to push the Western Allies out of Berlin. The end was the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989. As the traditional capital of Germany, the symbolic value of Berlin made it the focal point of the Cold War.
Berlin was conquered by the Red Army in savage fighting at he end of World War II in Europe, the last major engagement (April 1945). Stalin was intent on the Red Army taking the prize and lied to General Eisenhower about his intentions. Wehrmacht commanders west of Berlin could not understand why the Americand did not push for Berlin. Berlin was a primary target of the Allied strategic bombing campaign and was in rubble by the time the Red Army arrived in April. Further destuction occurred during the savage fighting. Hitler had depleted the city's defenses by commiting two SS armoured divisions to the phric defense of Budapest. The defense of the city was in part in the hands of the Volkstrum composed of old men and Hitler Youth boys. Hitler hung on until the last minute as thousands died around him. When the Red Army approached his bunker, Hitler committed suicide with Eva Braun who he had married hour before.
As decided at the Yalta Conference, the three principal Western Allies (Britain, France, and the United States) were given occupation zones in the conquered NAZI capital.
Many Americans after the War and American military personnel involved in the occupation had very bitter attitudes toward the Germans. The relevations of the Holocaust and other NAZI brutalities has horrified peope. Many American servovemen not only had biddies killed, but had participated in the liberatioin of the concentration camps or other wise experienced NAZI brutalities. Few were inclined to be gentile or firgiving to the Germans. It was the suffering of the German people in the immediate post-War period that changed many attitudes. In particular many GI note the children, bith the lack of food and clothing and their friendly emotional embrace of the GIs that turned many hardened hearts.
As Berlin was located well within the Soviet occupation zone of Germany, all supplies had to pass through the Soviet zone. As a result, the Western allies and the Berlin people were vulnerable to Soviet pressure. The American force in Berlin was part of the Big Red One (1st Infantry Divison. A reader tells us, "I was in Berlin, with Co. L the 3rd Bn 16th Reg. 1st Div. The 16th Reg. of the Inf 1st Div. was active in Berlin, from November 1946-62. I was assigned in 1948, to Co. L 3rd Bn. 16th Inf. Ist Div. until late 1949. I know of no other U.S. Inf unit being in Berlin At this time." [Van Heuvelen]
The Soviets enginered a coup in Czechoslovakia in February 1948. Czechoslovakia was the last Eastern European country occupied by the Soviets that had any semblance of a democratic government. Elections had made the Communists the largest political party, but they did not have a majority and were forced to form a coalition with non-Communist parties. Many Czechs were hooeful that theifr country because of its geographic location and historical links coukld serve as a kind of political bridge between East and West. Stalin was, however, nit interested in bridge building. He wanted a reliable, compliant Czechoslovakia. The Communists armed their supporters and staged street demonstragtions. They were supported by th police because the Ministry of the Interioir was in the hands of the Communists. The army might have supoorted the Government if President Benes had decided to resist, but he believed that Soviet troops would intervene. Czecholslovakia at the time was almost entire surounded by Soviet satellites or Soviet occupied eastern Germanya nd Austria. He therefore yielded to the Communiksts and the country soon had a Stalinist Government. [Hudson, p. 60.] The Soviet takeover of Czecheslovakia in 1948 helped convince the Western Allies to unite their occupation zones. The British and French had already largeky done so in 1947, but the French were reluctant. They were insisting on ibnternational control of the Ruhr. Finally agrement was reached in mid-1948. The Soviets objected to this seeing in it the evebntuak creation of a unified West German state.
A Control Council was created in 1945 to allow the four occupying power to coordinate operatioins in divided Belin. Cooperation with the Soiviets began to break down in in 1947 as the Allied moved to unify their occupatioin zones, The Soviets also began to gradually escalate harassment of Western traffic to and from the city through the Soviet occupation zone. By early 1948 any semblance of a cooperation had largely broken down. General Clay reported a changing attitude anong Soviet officials whichbhe described as "faintly contemoptous, slightly arrogant and ceratinly assured". The Soviet delegates on March 20, 1948 walked out of the Control Council and subsequently refused to attend further meetings. [Hudson, p. 61.]
It was at Berlin that the first major confrontation of the Cold War occurred. Stalin decided in 1948 that he could blockade Berlin and force the Western allies out and the people of West Berlin into submission. Stalin probably calculated that because of Soviet milirary supremecy on the ground that the Western Allies wiuld not attempt to push through the blockade. [Hudson, p. 61.] He was probably correct as this would have required a huge force and American public, would have been an enormously costly enterorise, and opinion would have been unlikely to have supported saving Berlin at the cost of a war with the Siviet Union. What Stalin did not anticipate was that Berlin could be supported by an airlift.
Berlin was a city of 2 million people. Before the blockade, the Berlin economy had a daily requirement of roughly 4,000 tons (t) of supply. (USAF dat is in short tons meaning 2,000 lb rather than metric tons, 1,000 kg or 2,204.6 lb.) Most of the supplied needed were food and fuel which until the blockade was delivered from the Western occupation zone by road and rail links through the Soviet occupation zone. Large quantities of coal were needed for electrial power generation and during the winter to heat homes. The idea of using airplanes to deliver coal was unheard of.
The Soviet embargo was initially brought on by currency reform. The Western Allies on June 18 announced a currency reform, effective June 20. The French warned against it, but went along with it. The Soviets wanted to prevent the old currency from entering their zone, where it was still valid. They thus banned travel to and from their zone. European Command (EUCOM) on June 22 directed U.S. Air Forces in Europe (USAFE) to airlift supplies to Berlin. These initial flights were supplies for the U.S. garrison in Berlin. USAFE delivered 156 t in 64 sorties. The Soviets on June 24 suspended all ground travel through their occupation zone which surrounded Nerlin. This cur off all road and rail links in and out of Berlin with the rest of Germany. Stalin apparently decided to use the currency dispute to end the irritant of a free West Berlin.
Figure 2.--Berlin children were soon playing the Berlin Air Lift at a mock Templehoff Airport. |
The Berlin Airlift was primarily conducted by the U.S. Air Force (USAF) supported by the British Royal Air Force (RAF). The French air force played only a minor role, flying less than 1 percent of the Airlift flights. Presumably this was becaue they had a smaller air force, but even so the French particiopation seems unusually limited. I do not know the details. The RAF like the USAF made a massive commitment to the airlift. The RAF deployed its Dakotas on June 25 from the U.K. to Germany and flew their its first missions into Berlin, 6.5 t for U.K. garrison. Many at the time had doubts that an entire city could be supported from the air. The USAF began planning a massive air lift as the only alternative to surrender. Supplies would be initially flown in through Templehoff Air Port and plans were rushed to build a second airport at Tegel. The USAF ordered its C-54s (four engine military equivalent to a DC-6) from Alaska, Hawaii, and the Caribbean to Germany to reinforce the airlift. The first U.S. and British cargoes for civilian Berliners arrived June 28. The USAF July 7 delivered the first coal shipments on C-54s. First fatal U.S. crash occurred on July 8, A USAF C-47 crashed near Wiesbaden, killing all three American airmen aboard. The first fatal RAF crash occurred September 19. A York crashed near Wunstorf killing 5 British airmen. The Combined Airlift Task Force (CALTF) merging the USAF and RAF operations was created October 15 at Wiesbaden. The level of supplies needed required a secind airport. CALTF flew the first supplies into the new Tegel Airfield on November 5. The U.S. Navy committed two R-5D (C-54 equivalent) squadrons to the airlift. The USAF effort reached its peak strength of 225 C-54s on January 10, 1949. The Airlift had by bnow proven that Berlin can be sustained by air even during the Winter with its bad weather and demand for increased coal supplies. Not only could West Berlin be adequately be supplied, but shops in West Berlin were better stocked than in Soviet East Berlin. CALTF on April 16 mounts a maximum effort which they called "Easter Parade". It was designed to demonstrate the capacity of the aitlift to the Soviets. CALTF in 1 day reported 1,398 sorties meaning nearly one landing in Berlin every minute. Deliveries totaled 12,940 tons. Overall American, British, and French airmen flew over 278,000 flights dlivering more than 2.3 million tons of supplies, nearly 70 percent of which was coal. The Soviets finally lifted their blockade May 12, but the CLTF does not offically end the Berlin Airlift until September 30.
Food and coal were the priorities in the airlift. There was often less than 100 t capacity left over for industrial supplies, supplies to keep Berlin indistries functining. Despite the difficult conditions, the "Berlin Economic Emergency Society" attempted to continue productioin in the city. Thus some of the airlift flights carried out products manufactured in Berlin.
Many of the American pilots was struck by the Berlin children who still lived in desperate conditions after the War. The children had little on no candy and many did not even know what chocolate was. The children of course had little idea of the larger issues involved, but were caught up in the episode when one of the pilots began dropping candy and gum in little parachutes when he reached Berlin. Lt. Gail Halvorsen was so struck with the friendliness of the Berlin children that he wanted to do something for them. He decided on his own to start his own operation which he n amed it "Operation Little Vittles". Lt. Halvorsen practically bought out all the candy available on his base made little parachutes out of strips of cloth. At first Lt. Halvorsen's buddies gave up their candy rations as well as their handkerchiefs. After the effort was carried in the American media, the American Confectioners Association began providing candy. They sent tons of candy and gum to Westover AFB for processing. School children in Chicopee Massachusetts made parachutes, and tied on candy and sent the finished product to Lt. Halvorsen at Rhine Main AFB. The American flyers air dropped candy all over the city. They also dropped candy for children in East Berlin until the Soviets calling it a provocatin demanded that they stop. Lt. Halvorsen by January 1949 had air dropped more than 250,000 parachutes loaded with candy on the city of Berlin. When the crowds of children around te airports became too large the safety of the children were of concern. The crews began dropping the candy in areas around the city where they saw children playing. They also sent candy to children in schools and hospitals. The Berlin children began calling him Uncle Chocolate as well as Uncle Wiggly Wings, The Schokoladen Flieger, Uncle Wackelfluger, the cookie Bomber, and the Raisin Bomber. Children wrote with directions as to how to how the American pilots could hit their homes! When one little girl repeately failed to get candy, Lt. Halvorsen personally arrived at her house with a candy delivery.
Ironically the people of West Berlin were saved by American and British pilots, in most cases the same men that only 3 years earlier had been bombing German cities and had reduced Berlin itself to ruble. President Truman was determined that the United States would not leave Berlin and a massive airlift was organized and even during the winter, more supplies were reaching Berlin than before the Soviets had instituted the blockade. The airlift changed the military calculation. Rather than the Americans having to blast through the Soviet zone to save Berlin, Stalin would have had to shoot down American planes to cut off supplies. At first the Soviets did not believe an airlift could support an entire city. No doubt they remembered the failed Luftwaffe effort to save the German 6th Army in Stalingrad. To Stalin's surprise the U.S. Air Force supported by the British and French proved more than campable of supplying Berlin. During the blockade in fact, food was more available in blockaded West Berlin than in East Berlin. After it was clear that the Airlift woud succeed, Stalin was not prepared to risk war by shooting on the unarmed Airlift planes.
Finally with the success of the Airlift, Stalin relented and rail and road links were reopened in 1949. Here it is not entirely clear why talin did so. The governing factor was probably the propaganda war. The image of Soviet tanks blackading West Berlin was not one that was helpful for Communist parties in Western European elections. Stalin still hoed that Communist parties in the West, especally in Italy and France might be able to gain power democratically.
There was a subatantial cost in maintaining the Berlin Airlift. The cost of air freighting food and coal fofr the city wa costly in economic terms. It also cost the lives of 70 American and British flighgt crews. Most of the American casualties were Air Force personnel. Over half of the British losses were civilians. Presumably the RAF contracted civilians. There were also German civiians killed on the ground when planes crashed, estimates vary from 9-12. [USAF] The airlift put a great strain on American and British airmen who often flew planes with very little sleep. The adverse weather conditions, especially during the winter, also caused many accidents. To keep Berlin functioning, however, flying even in bad weather was necessary.
The Berlin Airlift was a major event of the Cold War. The greatest imapct of the Berlin Airlift was on Germans and other Europeans. Even before Stalin lifted tghe blockade, America had signed the North Atlantic Treaty and there was little opposition in the Senate to raftification. Soviet actiins in Eastern Europe and the blckade of Berlin had convinced many Americans that unlike what occurred after World War I, America must maintain a presence in Euroope to protect the Western democracies. The message that America and Britain would resist the Soviets was clear. The Berlin Airlift was also a turning point in the post-World War II occupation of Germany. The Soviets were not prepared to return to the Control Council nor am I sure how they would have been received. After the Arlift even the illusion that the victorious World War II Allies were jointly administering a defeated NAZI Germany was dropped. The Soviets and Western Allis would proceed on the path of creating two seprate German states in their respective occupation zones. [Hudson, p. 62.] West Berlin buried deep in the Soviet zone would continue to be the focal point of the conflict between the Soviets and the West in the developing Cold War--in a sence the most dangerous place in the world. Here Soviet and American tanks faced each other and would continue to do so for decades to come.
The Berlin Air Lift is primarily remembered as a remarable logictical undertaking by the U.S. Airforce supported by the RAF. Nothing like it had ever been successfully undertaken. The oblective was not only to keep a surrounded military force supplied, but this time an entire city. The Airlift was, however, much more than a massive logistical success. It was central step in building modern Europe. The Berlin Air Lift changed te entire course of European history. We say this because German since the fall of Rome has been the key to Europe. What Stalin recognized anf thankfully some American is that control of Germany meant essentially control of Europe. It was still not clear in 1948 where Germany ws headed. The country had been devestated by the War. Ecnomic conditions were still very difficult. The Air Lift kept Berlin allive, but it was only successful because Berliners supported both it and the Allied presence. The Winter of 1948-49 was the key. Beliners had to endure severe power cuts. Fmilies adjusted to living with candles and oil lamps as they had done at the end of the War. Authorities had to ration food. Fresh vegetables in particular became difficult to find. Today it seems obvious that Beliners would support the Allies. It was not that obvious in 1948. It is true that the Sobiets had been brutal in their occupation of Germany. The accounts of raping were legendary. It is also true that the Allied strategic bombing campaign had been brutal--although not unpresendented after a series of Luftwaffe terror raids. The Whermacht showed with their feet at the end of the War that they preferred Allied occupation. The question in 1948 was, however, would the Allies really stand up to the Soviets. Economically conditions in the Soviet and Allied sectors were not all that different in 1948. Job were scarce. Coal and food were still inadequate. Many Germans lived in ruins. Children had t go to school in make-shift buildings. Trees in parks were being cutdown for firewood and cooking fuel. The Airlift demonstrated that the Allies, especially the United Srates, would stand up to the Soviets. The Air Lift caused a sea change in the German mind. The same air forces that had devestated German cities now rescued Berlin. And much more was involved than just Berlin. The entire German people were watching. It was at this time that many Germans began viewing the Allies as actually allies rather than occupiers. The Airlift provided the catalyst for this change. Germans increasingly saw the Allies not only as preferable to the Soviets, but capable of standing up to them militarily. The geographic location of West Berlin of course did not change. Its existence was precarious as it had been, and Berlin became the most dangerous spot of the Cold war. Something monentous, however, had taken place. The German-American alliance was a direct result of the Alilift. This in the final analysis is the full measure of the Allied achievement and Soviet failure. [Botting] The full measure of Belin's and Germany's commitment to the West and democracy can be seen vividly went President Kennedy visited Berlin in the 1960s after the Comminists unable to compere economically erected the Berlin Wall.
Another change occurred as a result of the Airlift. The public in America and Germany which had been shocked at the NAZI attricities generally felt that Germany should be punished. The Airlift significantly changed public opinion in America and Britain. It was seen as a massive humanitarian effort and the Soviets increasingly replaced the Germans as the great threat to democracy in Europe. The Berlin Air Lift in paticular laid the groundwork for a major shift in American publication. There would be not withdrawl from Europe as was the case afyer World war I. It helped prepare public opinion for the North Atlantic Treaty Organization--the American military commitment to Europe.
A German reader who lived through the Airlift writes, "Thank the American people, the government and the pilots for the support and help to the Berlin population. It is a story that needs to be remembered." Another reader writes, "Yes, I very much agree. I was a very little girl at the time, but I recall it like yesterday. I knew nothing about Americans and Rusians. But you see I got my first taste of chocolate. It was heavenly."
The Berlin Air Lift is remembered today as a kind of historical footnote. It was much more than that. It is no accident that the Cold War can be said to have begun and ended in Berlin. The Berlin Airlift may be the greatest disaster in Soviet foreign policy after the NAZI-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact. The consequences were staggering for the Soviets. 1) America committed to the defense of Western Europe thrpugh NATO). 2) The Airlift convinced Berliners and Germans as a whole that America would stand with them against Soviet totalitarianism. 3) Soviets actions essentially innoculated Germany from Communism and Germany was the key to Europe. 4) The Soviet actions exposed to Western press coverage exposed the true character of the Soviet regime. It severly damaged the reputation of Communist parties in Western Europe, especially in France and Italy where they were close to winning national elections. 5) The American stance in Berlin essentially meant that the Cold War would be fought along economic lines in Europe. And by the 1950s the German Economic Miracle and the economic success throughout Western Europe proved that free enterprise was a far superior economic system culminating in the Berlin Wall--the Soviet admission of failure.
Botting, Douglas. From the Ruins of the Reich: Germany 1945-1949 (New York: New American Library, 1985).
Halvorsen, Gail. The Berlin Candy Bomber (1990).
Hudson, G.F. The Hard and Bitter Peace: World Politics Since 1945 (Praeger: New York, 1967), 319p.
U.S. Air Force, "50: Berlin Airlift, 1948/49/1998-99".
Van Heuvelen, John. E-mail message, April 12, 2006.
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