Figure 1.--. |
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Egypt because of its large population is the most influential Arab country. Egyptian governments since the over throw of King Farouk (1952) have been installed and maintained in power by the Egyptian Army. There are many serious abuses of human rights in Egypt. The problems arise from Goverment actions, the fundamentalis Muslim brotherhood desiring to create an Islamic state, and a deeply conservative society stronly influenced by principles of Islamic law which descriminate against minority groups and women. The Government has been criticized by international groups for its actions both against the democratic opposition and the Muslim brotherhood. While Army rule under President Mubarack is not democratic, it is to a degree secular. It is faced by a resourceful challenge from the Muslim Brotherhood which is neither democratic or secular. The Brotherhood has as in other countries attempted to seize power by force. They attempted to assasinate President Nasser and suceeded in assasinating President Sadat. Currently the Brotherhood claims to be attempting to gain power through cobstitutional means. While the Brotherhood decries the denial of democratic rights and free speech, there is little liklihood that they would institute a democratic government if they managed to seize power. The question for those interested in civil rights is how to assess an authoritarian governments and its suppression of human rights to prevent Islamic fundamentalists from estanlishining a theocracy, especially when the government also supresses the democratic opposition.
The Ottoman Empire gained control of Egypt (16th century). Britain established a protectorate because of trade routes to India (19th century). The British became even more involved after the contruction of the Suez Canal. Britain after World War I unilaterally declared the end of the protectorate (1922). Egypt promulgated a constitution and representative government began (1923). The British did not fully withdraw and the rize of NAZIism in Europe delayed that withdraw because of the strategic importance of the Canal. Egypt in the 20th century was very poor, illiteracy was high, and there was no modern industry. Many Egyotians blamed the British, although Britin had not intervened notably in domestic affairs. One of the most modern elements in the country was the Army and a group of young officers (the Free Officers Movement) were very impressed with the NAZIs and how they seemed to be carrying out a marvelous national revival (1930s). The Free Officers wanted that for Egypt and were prepared to greet the German Afrika Korps with open arms--only the British stopped them at El Alemaine (1942). After World War II, the Free Officer Movement led by Colonel Gamal Abd El-Nasser seized power (1952). Nasser with the NAZIs gone turned to another totalitarian country--the Soviet Union. Communism seemed to be anothe way to modernize Egypt. Nasser promoted Arab Socialism. Nasser carried out extensive agricultural and industrial development projects. Egypt remained, however, mired in poverty. Egyptian rejection of the British obscured the importance of democracy, free markets, and the rule of law. Nasser was also determined to destroy Israel militarily and huge resources were poured into this effort. Anwar El-Sadat after Nasser's death became president (1970). Another failed war against Israel followed (1973). Sadat subsequently announced his historic initiative to regonize Israel and persue peace (1979). A treaty was signed, but the fundamentalist Muslem Brotherhood which had tried to kill Nasser, suceeded uin killing Sadat (1981). Egypt remains a very poor country. Islamic fundamentlism is on the rise. Many young people are turning to an old messianic movement--fundamentalist Islam as a way of creating a prosperous new Egypt, much as earlier generations had turned to first the NAZIs and then the Communists.
Egyptian governments since the over throw of King Farouk (1952) have been installed and maintained in power by the Egyptian Army. There are many serious abuses of human rights in Egypt. The problems arise from Goverment actions, the fundamentalis Muslim brotherhood desiring to create an Islamic state, and a deeply conservative society stronly influenced by principles of Islamic law which descriminate against minority groups and women.
The Government has been criticized by international groups for its actions both against the democratic opposition and the Muslim brotherhood. While Army rule under President Mubarack is not democratic, it is to a degree secular. The question for those interested in civil rights is how to assess an authoritarian governments and its suppression of human rights to prevent Islamic fundamentalists from estanlishining a theocracy, especially when the government also supresses the democratic opposition.
The Government is faced by a resourceful challenge from the Muslim Brotherhood which is neither democratic or secular. The Brotherhood has as in other countries attempted to seize power by force. They attempted to assasinate President Nasser and suceeded in assasinating President Sadat. Currently the Brotherhood claims to be attempting to gain power through cobstitutional means. While the Brotherhood decries the denial of democratic rights and free speech, there is little liklihood that they would institute a democratic government if they managed to seize power.
There is no guarantee of free speech in Egypt. The Egyptian press and publishing in the the country are regulated by The Press Law, Publications Law, and various provisions of the penal code..
The laws prohibit criticism of the president which can be punished by fines or imprisonment. International observers thus classify the Egyptian press as unfree, bu sometimes note there is a diversity of published media in the countrt. [Freedom House] There are reports of harassment and imprionment of journalists. [Repoters Without Borders] The Government has promised such reforms, but there contine to be major barriers to press freedom in Egypt. There have been some changes in Egypt. The major newspapers in Egypt are state-owned. The papers have been losing their readership as new independent papers have emerged and attracted an increasing readership. The Egyptian parliament passed a new press law (July 2006). The new law made someimportant improivements. Under its provisions, the government could no longer arrest and imprison journalists for critizing it. The law does permit fines. While hardly a free press, there doesseem to be some improvement froim the Nasser era when the press was essentilly a gobernment mouthpiece.
The Government does generally permit the distribution of foreign newspapers and magazines. Ther have been occassional actions against foreign publications, commonly on religious grounds. The Government banned editions of Le Figaro and Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitun (September 2006). Officials were disturned with articles seen to be insulting to Islam. Al Jazeera commentators were disturbed with an article by German historian Egon Flaig which focused on the Prophet Mohammed as a military commander. The Egyptian minister of information stated that he, "would not allow any publication that insults the Islamic religion or calls for hatred or contempt of any religion to be distributed inside Egypt". The refere to Islam is standard, but actually Egyptian newspaers regularly include often vile anti-Semetic references to Jews. Groups like the Muslim Brotherhood which decry government controls on the Egyoptian press had no problem with this action, an indication that they are not committed to a free press, but simply object to the Government muzzeling their speech.
Islam is established as the official state religion in Egypt. The Government controls the country's major mosques. Religious practices conflicting with Islamic law, Sharia are prohibited. The practice of Christianity or Judaism is theory is not felt to conflict with Sharia as both religions are recognoized in the Koran as "people of the book". There are, however, restrictions on the practice of all non-Islamic religions. Most Jews since independence have left the country or been expelled after being stripped of their possessions. since independence. There continues to be a Coptic Christian minority. Christians are able to worship. Individual Christians have served in government posts. Coptic Christmas has been a national holiday since 2002. Coptic Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria has had problems with the government. One of the principal Coptic cioncerns witg the Government is over the building and repair of Churches. It is virtually impossible to build a new church in Egypt bcause of difficulties obaining government permits.
Government regulations dating from the Ottoman era requir non-Muslims to obtain presidential decrees before building or repairing a place of worship.
A range of other laws restrict the practice of Christianity and other religions in Egypt. Egyptian law does not recognize conversion from Islam to other religions. There are also strict laws against insulting Islam, Christianity or Judaism. In practice only legal actions against insulting Islam are persued with any vigor and the most despicable treatment of Jews is common in the Egyptian press. There are occassional attacks on Christians. The Government does not incourage these attacks, but fundamentalists Islamicists are hostile resulting in these attacks.
Muslim mobs killed 21 Coptic Christians in Al-Kosheh (December 31, 1999 to January 2, 2000). One source suggest the cause was economic resentment. Mobs in Alexandria attacked Copts (2005).
A small number of Egyptians have persued legal action against the Government for not allowing them to convet to Christiamity. They have had little success, but their ability to even persue their cases in notablt. Apostacy is prohibited by the Koran and a capital crime in a number of Muslim countries.
There are severe limitations on unorthodox Islamic sects. A major target has been the
Bahá'í faith. President Nasset banned Bahá'í institutions and community activities (1960). The Government seized Bahá'í community properties, centers, libraries, and cemeteries. Bahá'ís are not issued identity cards, and as a result excluded from owning property, attend university, operate a business, obtain birth, marriage and death certificates. There are occassional arressts. The Government arrested 18 Bahá'ís on "suspicion of insulting religion" and detained then for several months (2001).
Freedom House.
Repoters Without Borders.
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