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The century began when the War for Dutch Independence still underway. Religion was still an important factor at the beginning of the century, both in the Dutch War for Independence and the Thirty Years War. The Thirty Years War can be been as the last religious war in Europe. The War was settled in a way which led to growing toleration because Catholics could not suoress the Protestants and the Protestants were two divided among different sects to even try to supress rival sects. The wars in the mid-century (Thirty Years War, the Fronde, and the English Civil War) determined the dynastic system in Western Europe. The ensuing wars had a more dynastic character. The wars of the late 17th century evolved primarily around the efforts of Louis XIV to expand France's boundaies and the efforts of neigboring countries to resist Fremch encrochments. This added to the French-English and Frenh-Austrian rivalry as England and Austria often played a major role in the resistance to Louis.
Spain and the northern provinces of the Netherlands negotiated a 12-year truce (1609-21). Spain was preparinfg a new offensive against the Dutch when the truce ended. The problem for Spain was how to support military operations in the low countries. The rise of a Dutch navy made it difficult to send troops and provisions by sea. Reach the Dutch by land was also difficult. France stood between Spain and the Netherlands. And the French were not about to permit Spanish troops to pass through their country. It suited French purposes at the time to have an independent Netherlands even though they were Protestant. Thus the Spanish would have to send their forces along a circuitous route from Spain to Italy by sea and then through the Alpine passes to the the Rhine River Valley. The Rhine than led to the Dutch. This was a very difficult march for any body of troops and needed equipment and supplies, especially given the nature of roads at the time. The key to the route was the Rhineland. This was a contested area. The Spanish hoped to acquire Alsace which Ferdinand had promissed for supporting his imperial candidacy.
The Thirty Years War was the most bloody and destructive war ever fought in Europe until the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century. It was not as the name suggests one single war lasting 30 years, but rather a series of related wars fought over that period. The War began in Germany (Holy Roman Empire) and gradually spread to much of the rest of Europe. It was actually a series of wars involving most European countries, but fought primarily in Germany. The war was exceedingly brutal, in part because of the religious passions of the Reformation. The struggle was between Catholic and Protestant princes aided by non-German coregilionalists. While initially a religious war, the fighting was complicated by dynastic rivalries and the desire of the Sweeds and French to curb the power of the German Holy Roman Empire dominated by the Hapsburgs. The War devestated Germany. It is believed that about 6 million civilians, mostly Germans, perished in the conflict. More Germans died in this War than in either World war I or II.
The Tudors did a great deal to strengthen the authority of the monarchy, but were deft politicans and managed Parliament carefully. The Stuarts had a different mindset. They were commited to not only divine-right monarchy, but royal absolutism as well. Rather than attempting to mamage Patliament, the Stuarts were affronted by Parliament's perogatives. The conflict between the Stuart monarchy and Parliament culminated in the English Civil War.
The Fronde was a French civil war resulring from the conflict between and increasongly absolutist maonarchy and the nobels of France. It occured the monarchy of King Louis XIV, but while he was still a child. It occurred at about the same time as the later stages of the Civil War in England and immediately after the Thirty Years War in Germany. All three of these conflicts were caused by the attempt of the monarchy to expand the authority of the monarchy at the expense of the nobility and wealthy merchants. The outcome in each country was radically different. The name Fronde was derived from a play sling used by the boys of Paris in mimic street fights.
The English played a major role in securing the independence of the Netherlands. And usually the Dutch and English were on the same side of European conflicts. Never-the-less, the English fought three naval wars with the Dutch during the 17th century. The more important ones were conducted by Stuart King Charles II who maintained close relations with England's traditional enemy France. The Dutch Wars are thus somewhat of an anomaly in England's basic policy of resisting foreign domination of the Low Lands, although the Third Dutch War turned into Louis XIV's wars of expansion. The Wars were fought as naval engagements. One important outcome was the English seizure of New Amsterdam which became the English colony of New York,
The Barbary Pirates operated from the coast of North Africa for over three centuries (16th-early 19th centuries). As Europe advanced with developments in science and capitalism, North Africa dominated by Islam fell behind economically and culturally. The pirate operations came to be the central aspect of the North African economy as they could prey on increasingly wealthy Christian Europe. The high point of Barbary operations appears to have been the mid-17th century. Historisans believe that over 1 million European Christians were captured and enslaved. The rich were ransomed. The ordinary captives were condemned to a life of slavery and toil. The Barbary raids were conducted as far north as Scandinavia. European powers conducted military operations, but ir proved more cost effective to pay tribute. The first overseas military operations of the new United States was against the Barbary Pirates. The Barbary raids continued until improivements in European navies in the early 19th century and French efforts to colonize the area finally put an end to it.
The War of Devolution was the first war launched by French King Louis XIV to expand France's borders. Louis XIV and France beginning with the War of Devolution would be at war with much of Europe for 40 years. Louis' campaigns were waged to exand France's bordrs, but the territory won was very modest in comparison to the costs. And they were achieved at enomous costs, virtully bankrupting the country. The impact was to weaken France and the monarchy and would eventually lead to the Revolution. [Lynn] France was opposed by the now independent United Provinces (Netherlands), Spain, England, and Sweden. Louis had no allies. The War was ended by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668).
Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes, in part due to Madame de Maintenon's influence (1685). The Edict had provided for religious toleration in France. French Protestants had the right to worship as they chose. The revokation was followed by the brutal supression of French Protestants. Thousands were killed and many more fled the country. Louis saw a divided kinghdom as a weakness. In fact the loss of the Protestants weakened the French economy. Louis XIV again attempted to enlarge France's birders in the War of the League of Augsburg . Louis was resisted by England, United Provinces (Netherlands), Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, Sweden, Brandenburg-Prussia, Saxony, Bavaria, and Savoy. Europe's protestant rulers formed the the League of Augsburg to resist Louis. The War was ended by the Treaty of Ryswick (1697).
Lynn, John A. The Wars of Louis XIV, 1664-1714.
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