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The NAZI conquest of Yugoslavia took inly a week with the lost of 100 men. What happened afterwards was anything but bloodless. A guerilla war began began between the NAZIs and Italians the two Yugoslavians partisan groups (Tito and Mihajlovic) and the Greek guerillas. This was a very complicated struggle. Croat national forces joined the Germans as did Muslims in Kosovo. Tito the communist was a Croat and Mihajlovic was a Serb. The ethnic disputes had begun before the War and with NAZI encouragement, Yugoslavia became a vast killing field. The Yugoslav and the Greek guerillas managed to tie down almost 1 million German soldiers. It proved to be a costly diversion for the Axis, causeldy largely by Mussolin's miscalculation. The Mihaljlovic partisans became known as the Chetniks. They gradually became reluctant to attack the NAZIs, in part because of the horendous reprisals and also hostility to Tito's partisans. Because of this reluctance, the Allies gradually lot faith in the Chetinks and began supporting Tito's partisans. Mihaljlovic's partisans saved over 500 American airmen in Operation Halyard and got them back safely to the Allies. The NAZIs were shooting 100 civilians for every German soldier killed. A HBC reader, tells us, "My friend John Roberts who was saved by the Serbs when his B-24 was shot down. John told me his story how the Serbs hid him and later was put on a boat in the Adriatic sea and was picked up by a US Navy ship. After the war John contacted the Serbs who help him and was told about one hundred civilians from that village were shot to death. John past away a few years ago and he was one of the 500 airmen that were saved in the Operation Halyard pipeline."
Germany's famed statesman, the Iron Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, had insisted that the Balkans was "not worth the bones of a single Pomeranian grenadier." The Balkans were critical for the NAZI war effort. Conducting the War required enormous quantities of petroleum. Germany did not have oil resources of its own. It was developing an industry to convvert coal to oil which was to play an important role in the War. As part of the NAZI-Soviet Non Agression Pact (August
1939), the Soviets began delivering petroleum to Germany. The major source of petroleum for Germany was the Romanian oil fields. There were other resources in the Balkans (chrome, copper, magnesium, and other materials), but the most important was the Romamaian petoleum. Without that oil, Germany could not wage any prolonged war. For Hitler, the great prize in the War was not regaining the territories lost in World War I, it was rather expanding east into Poland and the
trackless steppe of Russia and the Ukraine. He did not hide this objective. It is described at some length in Mein Kampf. This of course ment war with the Siviet Union. Thus the Balkans took on greater strategic importance because to mose east against the Soviets, Germany's southern flank needed to be sevured.
Hitler had hoped to avoid commiting the Wehrmacht to the Balkans and made considerable progress toward that goal. Mussolini undid Hitler's carefully laid plans by invading neutral Greece through its Albania bases (October 28, 1940). Mussolini's 1940 invasion of Greece complicated Hitler's time table for Barbarossa. The invasion was not coordinated with Hitler in advance. (The Axis partners never coordinated their operations like the Allies.) Mussolini announced it when Hitler arrived on a visit. "Führer, we are on the march." The Italian troops were beaten back and the Greek troops overtook over one third of Albania. Greece had a Fascist Government that could have possibly brought into the Axis or at least would have remained neutral. Instead Mussolini turned the Greeks into a British ally. The British sent about 50,000 troops to help Greece, which they had to deplete from Egypt. This was important bercause critical to the German invasion was access to the Romanian oil fields. Germany had been relying on Soviet oil deliveries to supplement its synthetic oil production. The Soviet deliveries would end of course when Germany invaded leaving the Germans dependant on Romanian oil until the Soviet Caucauses could be seized. Greek successes against the Ilalians had created an Allied belingerant that could provide air fields to attack the Romanian oil fields. Hutler thus saw a German intervention to seize Greece and secure Germany's southern flank would be necessary. As a result, German forces in Romania were reeinforced and efforts were made to bring Yugoslavia into the NAZI orbit so that the Panzers could move through that country to attack Greece. Hitler had forced Yugoslavia to join the other AXIS Balkan partners, but the Government was overthrown necessitaing a full sacle German invasion. Hitler had to come to the rescue Mussolini. The Germans invaded Greece and Yugoslavia simultaneously on April 6, 1941. Belgrade was subjected to Luftwaffe terror bombing for rejecting an alliance with the NAZIs. The Germans swept through Yugoslavia and Greece and took Crete with a daring, but costly parachute assault. (Hitler never again allowed a parachute assault.) Greece was defeated on April 27, 1941. Despite the success of the German invasion, it proved to have been a strategic dissaster. The Balkans diversion delayed Operation Barbarossa by at least 6 weeks. If Hitler had started his invasion to of the Soviet Union May it seems highly likely that they would have seized Moscow if not have defeated the Red Army. As it was the Wehrmacht was stopped on the outskirts of Moscow in December, 1941.
The NAZI conquest of Yugoslavia took inly a week with the lost of 100 men. What happened afterwards was anything but bloodless. A guerilla war began began between the NAZIs and Italians the two Yugoslavians partisan groups (Tito and Mihajlovic) and the Greek guerillas. This was a very complicated struggle. Croat national forces joined the Germans as did Muslims in Kosovo. Tito the communist was a Croat and Mihajlovic was a Serb.
The history of the Balkans campaign is often presented in simplistic terms. This was certainly the case of Tito's Yugoslavia after the War. History became essentially propaganda which depicted the struggle as good (the Partsans) against evil (the NAZIS, Chetniks, and Ustace). Even in the West, this approach was not absent because any one fighting the NAZIs were seen as the just forces. The actual situation, however, was much more complicated. It is true that the Chetniks at times cooperated with the NAZIs, but this was not because they had the same goals as the NAZIs, but because they were afraid of what the Communisyts would do if they seized control of the country. And what Tito did do after the War show that their concerns were well founded. In fact what happened in Yugoslavia was that the NAZI invasion discredited or actually destroyed the old social order and the fragile spirit of accomodation and ethnic and religious tolerance that had existed in the Balkans since the desplacement of the Ottomans. The Balkans were perhas the most ethnically and religiously diverse corner of Europe. With the old social order swept away past resentments, historical resentments, and national passions rose to the surface. The results became endless attacks and retribution among clans, villages, etnic, and religious groups. The NAZIs stirred the pot with attacks on Jews, Gypseys, and Serbs. Into this mix the Ustache eagerlly participated. While the primary domestic conflict was between Orthodox Serbs and Cathloic Croats, the actual situation was much more complicated. The SS organized Muslim units. The Hungariabns wanted to join Hungary and expel Serbs. And their were ethnic Volk-Deutsche. It is true that the Chetniks moved close to the NAZIs, but Partisans units times made accomodations with the NAZIs as well. [Pavlowitch] All in all the outcome prove a nightmare not only for the people of Yugoslavia. It proved to be adisaster for the NAZIs as well who eventually had to commit more than 1 million badly needed troops to the Balkans.
Various parts of Yugoslsavia were occupied by different Axis invading armies. The bulk of the actual fighting was done by the German Wehrmacht and Luftwaffe. But Germany's Axis parners were awarded a share of defeated Yugoslavia. The Germans occupied Serbia and Slovenia. The Italians took parts of Croatia (Dalmatia), Montenegro and Slovenia. The Bulgarians took Macedonia. The Hungarians occupied Vojvodina. The later tried to enter Croatia but were expelled. The Croatians declared their independence (April 10) and occupied much of Bosnia. A Fascist Croatia was acceptable to the NAZIs and Italian Fascists. The Italians in particular had been supporting the Croatian Ustache before the War against the Yugoslav government. The NAZIs did the same in Czechoslovakia where they recognized Slovakia as another slavisly pro-NAZI puppet state. Thus the occupation of Yugoslavia, Greece, and Albabia by the different Axis armies was a complicated unndertaking. Each of the different countries had their own national interests and persued a range of policies in the occupied areas. The Germans attempted toncoordinate policies with varying degrrees of success.
The NAZIs permitted the extreme nationalist Ustaša to form the "Independent State of Croatia" (NDH). The Ustaša had been supported by Italian Fasciasts as a way of destabilizing the Yugoslav Government. The Ustaša also received NAZI support because they were so virulantly anti-Serb. The Croats were Slavs, but were Roman Catholic rather than Orthodox like the Serbs. Hitler awarded them the status of "honoary" Aryans. The Croatian state included Bosnia and Herzegovina, but lost Dalmatia to the Italians and the regions of Baranja and Meimurje to the Hungarians. The Croats provided the bulk of the pro-Fascist forces in Yugoslavia. They faced resistance, however, from Serbian population in Bosnia and the Croatian anti-Fascists. The Ustaša and their German and Italian patrons established concentration camps all over Croatia where hundred of thousand of Serbs, Jews, anti-fascist Croats and others were murdered. The reasons varies. Some were targeted for resisting the invasion and Croatian puppet regime. Others were targeted for racial or religious reasons.
Yugoslavia was one of the few European countries at the time with a Muslim population, the resut of centuries of control by the Ottoman Empire. Most Yugoslav Muslims were located in Bosnia and Kosovo. Croatia declared its independence (April 10). Part of the territory they wanted was Bosnia-Herzegovina, the former Austro-Hungarian province. The Croatians did not get what they wanted as Italy insisted on taking some areas the Croatians wanted, especually Dalmatia. Croatian was cimpensated with much of Bosnia. Bosnia Herzegovina was an polygot ethnic and religious mix, populsated with Catholic Croatian, Orthodox Serbs, and a small number of Jews. Added to this mix was Muslim Croatians. NAZI SS Chief Heinrich Himmler was particularly interested in Islam and conceived the idea of forming Muslim SS units. These Muslims Croats were the focus of the NAZI recruitment efforts. AS NAZI military power flaged, Himmler began to dilute the racial parameters for the SS, making it possible to recruit in the Balkans. Himmler appears to have had a lot of fanciful ideas about Muslims. Having read about the Crusades, he saw Muslims as fanatical fighters fired by the Islamic faith. In addition he thought or convenietly forgot tht the Croats (boh Slavs and Cristians) were not Slavs.
(The Croats for their pat seemed to have ignored NAZI racial theories about Slavs.) Also the NAZIs were attracted to the idea that they could rally the Muslim world to their side, an idea that was a little late by 1943. Hitler approved the project a few days after the fall of Stalingrad (February 13, 1943). Croatian Poglavnik (Führer) Ante Pavelicn and his goivernment who were ardebtly Catholic were not at all enthusiastic about the idea. The deteriorating military situiation and NAI insistence, however, decided the issue. Pavelicn signed off on the project (March 5, 1943). The divisional strength soon reached the required 26,000 men (mid-1943). The Muslim division was given the the number "13"--the "13 SS Frei.Gebirgs Division (kroatien). The full name "13 Waffen-Gebirgs-Division der SS 'Handschar' (kroatische Nr. 1)" was finally assigned (May 1944). It became knwn as the Handschar (Handzar) Division. A Handschar is the curved Muslim sword, normally referred to as the Scimitar in English. It was also the historic symbol of Bosnia. The Division was to have two Infantry Regiments, an Artillery Regiment, a Reconnaissance Company, a Panzerjager Company, a Flak Company, a Pioneer Battalion, and various support units. The SS designated it a "mountain" division. The Division's first commander was SS Standartenfuhrer Herbert von Obwurzer (March-August 1943), Oberfuhrer/Brigadefuhrer Karl-Gustav Sauberzweig (August 1943-June 1944), and Oberfuhrer/Brigadefuhrer Desiderius Hampel (June 1944-May 1945.
The ethnic disputes had begun before the War and with NAZI encouragement, Yugoslavia became a vast killing field.
The Communist Party (CPY) led by Tito organized the struggle against the occupying armies and their Yugoslav supporters, especially the Croatian Ustaša. Tito attempted to consolidate forces that opposed the Axis and forming the National Liberation Movement. An exception here was the Chetniks. An initial alliance quickly broke down. Thus the guerilla war becane a three way struggle pitting the NAZIs/Fascists and their local collaborators, the Partisans, and the Chetniks. The Partisans organized around the Communist Party initially had a problem in that the Soviet Union as a result of the NAZI-Soviet Non-Agression Pact was allied with the NAZI invaders. This pronlem was resolved when the NAZIs invaded the Soviet Union (June 22). The Yugoslavs wre at first shocked and overwealmed by the staggering force of the NAZI invasion. Within weeks, however, resistance groups began organising.
The first Partisan unit to organize was the Sisak Partisan Detachment (June 22). It is no accident that this was the day the NAZIs invaded the Soviet Union. Sisak is a town in Croatia. Groups associated with the CPY also organized in Serbia, although coordinated actiion was diffucult. The groups began launching small-scale attacks on German and Italian targets (July). The CPY decided to launch an armed struggle (July 4). This date became celebrated as Fighter's Day in post-War Yugoslabia. The first major action was led by Kopaonik in Trepča (July 30). The guerillas then moved to Kopaonik and, joining with other abti-Fascists from the Ibar valley and neighboring moutain villages, launched the liberation effort.
They met in Stanulović, an isolated mountain village, to found the Kopaonik Partisan Unit Headquarters (August 1941). The area was named the Miners Republic, but only lasted 42 days before the NAZIs launched an offensive to establish control. The survivors joined forces with Tito's Peoples Liberation Army.
The Partisans conducted a guerrilla campaign that eventually reached levels the Wehrmact never anticipated. lulled intocomplasceny by their quick success when they invaded Yugoslavia. The Partisans success was in large part dur to their ability in achiebing increased levels of popular support. The Partisans manage to actually liberate areas of the country. They established People's committees to serve as civilian governments and even managed to begin small-scale arms industries.
The first Partisan units were small, inadequately armed and lacking necessary suporting infrastructure. The Partisans success is generally attributed to important advantages over the Chetniks and other resistance groups. Some Yugoslavs had fought in the Spanish Civil War, many of whom were Communists. The experiences gained there gave them oractical military experiece that even members of the Yugoslav Arny did not have. As Partisand units expanfed and gained in military potential, the Communist roots proved to be an advantage. While the Communist Party had been small, there were supporters throughout the country. The Communists focused on political ideology and not ethnicity. Other resistance groups had an ethnic orientation. The Chetniks were primarily a Serbian group. Thus the Partisans, unlike the other groups, could anticipate at leasr some support throughout the country. This was important as the War went on and Partisan units began to move out of their local areas of support. It also permitted them to recruit new members from the new areas.
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The Chetniks were the Royalist resistance group, meaning the official government resistance movement. They were organized by Mihaljlovic, a Yugoslav general. The Chetniks at first received the initial support from the Allies.
The Fascist occupiers, especially the NAZIs, instituted terrible reprisals on the civilian population for resistance attacks. The Wehrmacht sometimes killed up to 100 civilians for every Wehrmacht soldier killed. The targets included men, women, and children.
A Serbiabn reader from Kragujeva tells us about an incident in her town where some German soldiers were killed and wounded by a resistance attack. The German commander applied the standard German formula: 1 wounded German solders = 50 Serbian people executed and 1 dead German Solder = 100 Serbian people executed. The Germans at Kragujevac rounded up about 5,000 people. A secondary school was also included in the reprisal. All the pupils were boys. The teachers stayed with their students even though the Germans had the quota. All were executed. Our reader tells us that her grandfather escaped this because he was sick and kept at home that day. Two cousins were teachers at the school and they were executed with their pupils.
Many incidents kike this punctuated the terrible guerrila campaign in the Balkans. This was a factor in the unwilingness of the Chetniks to launch attacks on the Germans. It did not stop the Partisans. At the time of the NAZI invasion, opposition was concentrated in the cities where people were more politically concious. People in rural areas tended to be more apathetic. The viciousness of the NAZI reprisals tended to generate wide-spread opposition to the occupiers. The Partisans managed to achieve widespread support, despite the fact that relatively few Yugoslavs were Communists.
The Germans were not the only ones guilty of terrible attrocities in Yugoslavia. The Partisanswere also guilty of attrocities. This subject is not well documented, in part because it was Tito's partisans who took over Yugoslavia after the War. And of course partisan attrocities were a subject that was not permitted to be even discussed. Some of the worse partisan attrocities appear to have occurred early in the War. This was a time when the partisan network was not yet organized and consisted of militia groups that began to organize locally. There was no central control and little discipline. At this time quite a number of local vendettas and ethnic conflicts played out. As Tito expanded his control over the partisan units , he supressed the ethnic conflict, and partisan violence became more targetted on political enemies. This included not only the occupying Axis forces, but the Royalist Chetnkiks as well. There was also some bloody incidents at the end of the War. These were attacks on forces that has opposed the partisans. This meant largely Chetnik groups which by the end of the War were fighting with the Germans. Some of these groups attempted to flee with the retreating Germans. Civilians were involved because many of the men attempted to bring their families with them. Two of the best know incidents ovccurred at Bleiburg And Foibe. With the NAZIs collaapsing, the Croatian Army and civilians were withdrawing north westwards through Slovenia in an effort to reach the Western Allies so they could surrender. Most were unarmed civilians, perhaps as much as a third of the Croatian people. They were afraid to surrender to the Partisans, now essentially the Yugoslav Army. The Partisans forced the Croat POWs and civilians on death marches. Many were shot aling the way (May-June). The partisans also shot ethnic Italians associated with Fascism at Foibe. There were also incidents in Vojvodina, an area with a Hungarian ethnic minority whch Hitler had given to Axis ally Hungary during the War. The partisans killed quite a number of etnic-Hungarians at Bačka. [MacDonald]
Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union were the only two countries which were the Resistance was able to carry out sustained military opertiojs against the NAZIs. The Partisans initiated small-scale attacks on the occupiers (July 1941). They achieved some localized success and liberated areas of western Serbia (October 1941). They declared the Republic of Užice. The NAZIs launched an offensive to restablish control of the area (November 1941). Much of the Partisan force managed to escape into Bosnia. At this time the tenous cooperation between the Parisans and Chetniks to disolve into actual fighting.
The Partisans formed the 1st Proletarian Brigade (December 22). This was the "regular" unit capable of conducting operations outside their own immediate area. Gradually the Partisans grew in strength and organized more roubstv forces capable of larger-scale attacks. These and other regular units and partisan detachments merged into the PLA/PDY (NOV i POJ) (1942). The partisans in Dalmatia even a naval unit using the many fishing boats (September 1942). They were eventually able to launch atacks on the Italian Navy and Kriegsmarine as well as limited amphibious operations. The Partisans launched air attacks (May 1942). Two NDH pilots (Franjo Kluz i Rudi Cajevec) defected to the partisans in Bosnia. The limited facilities in Partisan controlled areas made this a short-term action. Partisans were later able to launch sustained air operations (1944). The British Royal Air Force provided aircraft, equipment and training. The NAZIs became increasingly focused on the growing Partisan strength. The Chetniks began to see them as a greater threat than the NAZIS and Italians. The NAZIs launched seven major anti-partisan Offensives. The most important were combined Wehrmacht, the SS, Fascist Italy, Ustaše, Chetniks and Bulgarian operations. These included the 4th Offensive, the Fall Weiss (Plan White) or the Battle of Neretva and the 5th Operation, Schwarz (Black) or the Battle of Sutjeska. NAZI defeats outside the Balkans undermined the German militaqry situation in Yugoslavia during 1943. The Soviet victory at Kursk (July 1943) allowed them to regain the Ukraine and then prepare an offensive into the Balkans.
The Allies invaded Italy (September 1943). The Italians surrendered. The NAZIs seized control of Italy and resisted the invasion. They also seized control of the Italian occupation areas in Greece, Albania, and Yugoslavia. Before accomplishing this, some Italian units went over to the Partisans or provided them substatial quantities of arms and supplies. This meant that the Wehrmacht occupation forces were mre severly strached than ever abd facec a much netter armed Partisan force. The military situation in the Balkans changed dramtically (1944). The Soviets liberated Romania and Bulgaria. This put them in position to attack into Yugoslavia. NAZI reverses on the Eastern Front and the D-Day landings in the West forced the Wehrmacht to begin withdrawing from Greece and Yugoslavia. The Allied victories in Italy also provided air bases which could support the Partisans. Much of the Partisan struggke had been fought in Bosnia since fall of the Republic of Užice in 1941. The Partisans began the liberatiin of Serbia (mid 1944). A joint Partisan-Red Army offensive liberated Belgrade (October 1944). The Patisans soon controlled eastern Yugoslavia (Serbia, Vardar Macedonia and Montenegro, as well as parts of Croatia--the Dalmatian coast (December 1944). This left Slovenia and much of Croatia in NAZI hands. The Partisan's final offensive defeated the combined Ustaše and Wehrmacht forces, The Partisans broke through at Syrmia. They took Sarajevo (April 1945). The remainder of Croatia and Slovenia fell (mid-May 1945). They then liberated Rijeka and Istria which had been part of Italy before the war. Finally they moved on Trieste, arrivung a day before the Allies. Trieste would prove a bone of contention in the post-War settlement.
The Yugoslav and the Greek guerillas managed to tie down almost 1 million German soldiers. It proved to be a costly diversion for the Axis, causeldy largely by Mussolin's miscalculation.
The Mihaljlovic Chetnik partisans became known as the Chetniks. They gradually became reluctant to attack the NAZIs, in part because of the horendous reprisals and also hostility to Tito's partisans. Because of this reluctance as well as open collaboration with the Germans and Italians, the Allies gradually lost faith in the Chetinks and began supporting Tito's partisans. The first Big Three Conference (Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin) was held at Teheran (1943). One of the decisions taken was to regognize the Partisans as the legitimate national liberation force. The Allies established the RAF Balkan Air Force at the instigation of Brigadier-General Fitzroy MacLean. This played a role in expanding the delivery of supplies and even some tactical air support.
Allied Air strikes at Balkan targets had to overfly occupied Yugoslavia. Air crews shot down in the targetted countries had little chance of rescue. This was different in Yugoslavia. Not only were Allied aircraft shot down over Yugoslavia, but many planes damaged in the attacks on Ploesti and other Balkan targets went down in Yugoslavia. As there was not only a strong resistance movement, but a growing guerrilla war, there was the possibility of getting the airmen back, especially planes that went down in Serbia, the part of Yugoslavia where the resistance movement was strongest. The Balkan guerrilla war, however, was a tremendoudly complicated and bloody part of World War II. The groups involved variously fought each other and both fought and cooperated the Germans and Italians. It is further complicaed because of a lack of central control, especially among the Chetniks. Here Mihailovic had only nominal control over many Chetnik units who often were more concerned with local feuds and situations. Some of these local Chetnik units turned Allied airmen over to the Germans and others protected them. The Partisans had greater central control and were more reliable in helping Allied airmen. The largest single rescue operation (Operation Halyard) was, however, carried out by the Chetniks (June 1944).
The Italian Fascist Grand Council removed Mussolini after the fall of Sicily to the Allies (July 1943). The new government under Field Marshall Bodaglio pledged to coninue the War, but in fact began secretly negotiating with the Allies.
Hitler was not fooled when the Italians pledged to stay in the War and ordered the Wehrmacht to prepare for an Italian surrender. When it occurred (September), the Germans were prepared, moving south to prepare for the Allied invasion. The NAZIs not only seized control of Italy, but they also seized control of the Italian occupied zone of Yugoslavia. This had two major military consequences. One, it streached the German occupation even thinner than it had been before the occupation. Two, some of the Italian forces turned their arms over to the partisans. This meant that the thinly streached Germans faced a much better armed partisan forces. A non military consequence was for the Jews in the Italian-occupied zone. The Italian commander had refused to participate in the Holocaust and turn over Jews to the Germans. The Germans upon seizing control began rounding up Jews.
Yugoslavia was one of the two European countries that were liberated in part because of Communist-dominated partisan forces. This of course was possible because the Red Army advances to the borders of the Reich posed the danger of cutting off German forces in the Balkans znd thus the Germans were forced to withdraw. Albania was the other country linerated by parisans, in te case of Albania aided by Yugoslav partisans. This of course determined the post-War course of Yugoslavia. The partisans received support from both the Soviets and Western Allies (British and Americans). The Western Allies a first supported the Chetniks, but later shifted their support when the Chetniks refused to fight the Germans and began cooperating with them.
MacDonald, David.B. Balkan Holocausts? (Manchester 2003).
Pavlowitch, Stephen K. "Neither Heroes nor Traitors: Suggestions for a Reappraisal of the Yugoslav Resistance," in Brian Bond and Ian Roy, eds. War and Society: A Yearbook of Military History (Croom Helm: London, 1975), pp, 227-30.
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