Figure 1.-- |
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Any history of World War II is of course dominated by the major military campaigns of the War. Diplomacy is a secondary but not unimportant aspect of the War. German Governments even before Hitler sedized power worked to undo the Vesailles Peace Treaty ending World War I (1919). The German and Soviet Governments signed the Rapollo Treary which provided for trade and military coopertation (1922). Hitler used diplomacy to lull world opinion while he consolidated power and began to rearm Germany. Hitler also began developing the Axis alliance system, first with Italy and then with Japan. The British used diplomacy to try to appease Hitler once German had begun its rearmament program. Primeminister Chamberlain could not conceive that Hitler actually wanted war and believed he had the skills to prevent the War. His supreme effort was at Munich in which he sold out Czechoslovakia, the only democracy in central Europe (1938). Hitler's subsequent invasion of Czechoslovakia (1939) ended the Hitler's ability to deal diplomatically with the West. The War was only made possible by Hitler's diplomatic coup, the Non-Agression Pact with the Soviet Union (1939). Neither side was under any illusion, the Non-Agression Pact was an armed truce, putting off war until the two continental powers partitioned Europe. American diplomacy was aimed at assisting the German Government financially until Hitler seized power. After Hitler seized power (1933), American diplomacy was hostile to the NAZI regime, but unwilling to take any real action because of the isolationist beliefs of the great majority of the American people which insisted on the passage of neutrality laws. The United States withdrew its ambassador, but did not break relations until Kristallnacht (1938). France generally deferred to Britain before the War, unwilling to confront Germany alone. After the German victory in the West (1940), Marshall Petain adopted a policy of apeasement, believing that Vichy could could carve out a space for France between the Germazny and Anglo-Americans. The Roosevelt Administration gradually moved America away from isolationism, especially after the fall of France. After Churchill became primeminister (May 1940), America and Britain gradually forged the greatest military alliance in history which envisioned in the Atlantic Charter a few months before Pearl Harbor (1941). Soviet diplomacy changed dramatgically when the country was rocked by the German invasion (June 1941). Japanese diplomacy fluctuated with the fortunes of the Strike North and Strike South factions. Japanese entry in the War was inevitable and was a matter of the military deptermining how the country could best take advantage of the war in Europe. The Japanese feigned peace, but American code breakers cracked the diplomatic Purple Code, giving the United States a true view of the country's intentions. Unfortunately for the Japanese, American diplomacy opposing their aggression in China distracted them from the obvious action, joining the NAZI assault on the Soviet Union. This proved to be the most decsisive diplomatic effort of the War. Of course Pearl Harbor of course changed everything, plunging the United States into the War. American diplomacy focused on the war time alliance with Britain and the Soviets. And as the Allies and Soviets reversed the Axis tide, the diplomacy of the War shifted to the post-War settlment.
The British used diplomacy to try to appease Hitler once German had begun its rearmament program. And attempted to address the rise of Fascism and Japanese miklitarism through the League of Nations. Britain signed a naval treaty with Germany (1935). Primeminister Chamberlain could not concveive that Hitler actually wanted war and believed he had the skills to prevent the War. His supreme effort was at Munich in which he sold out Czechoslovakia, the only democracy in central Europe (1938). Primeminister Chamberlain never focused British diplomacy on developing a close relationship with the United States. Primeminister Churchill did. Tghe fall of France caused some in government circles to consider an arrangement with Germany. Hitler expected a British Vichy. It was one reason he extended relatively generpous terms to the Fremnch. But ultimately, he himself sabatoged the effort. The earlier invasuin of Czechoslovakia in violation of the Munich Agreeement demonstated even to Chamberlain and the other appeasers that jhis signaturte meant nothing. Churchill was shocked by the fall of France, but he saw that Britain had no choice but to fight. He showed that determination at Oran where he ordered an attack on tghe Fremch fleet. The primary aim of British diplomacy became cooperation with the United States with the ultimate objective being the entrabce of the United Startes into the War and the defeat of Germany. When Hitler invaded the Soviet Union, the British immediately offered aid, despite the fact that the Soviets had been a German ally and had carried out a series of aggressiions comparable to the Germans.
France generally deferred to Britain before the War, unwilling to confront Germany alone. This meant that British Prime Minister Chanberlain made the key decesions. And after Munich he was hailed a hero in both Britain and France. This quickly evaporated as it becamecclear that Hitler was intent on expansion and war. After the German victory in the West (June 1940), Marshall Petain adopted a policy of colaboration, believing that Vichy could could carve out a space for France between the Germazny and Anglo-Americans. It was a terrible misjudgement of Hitler's character and plans after he won the War. Petain did manage to spare France the cost of continuing the War with theBritish or joining the NAZIs in the antti-Blosjhevik crusade in the East. By failing to stand with Britain and making peace with the NAZIs, Petain essentially put the future of France and her peopke in the hands of Britain and America. If France was to be saved, it would have to be the British and americans who would do it.
The Versailles Peace Treary ending Workd War I shocked the German people, both the punative measures and the loss of territory. German Governments even before Hitler seized power worked to undo the restrictions of the Treaty. The German and Soviet Governments signed the Rapollo Treary wjhich provofed for trade and military coopertation (1922). Hitler used diplomacy to lull world opinion with a modernate initial foreign policy. This enabled him to consolidated power and began to rearm Germany in secret. Hitler also began developing the Axis alliance system, first with Italy and then with Japan. Hitler's subsequent invasion of Czechoslovakia (1939) ended the Hitler's ability to deal diplomatically with the West. The War was only made possible by Hitler's diplomatic coup, the Non-Agression Pact with the Soviet Union (1939). Neither side was under any illusion, the Non-Agression Pact was an armed truce, putting off war until the two continental powers partitioned Europe. After launbching the War, diplomacy was no longer of interest to Hitler as he launched on a massive effort to reorder Eurioe by firce of arms.
Japan signaled it imperial visions in China during Workd War I when it issued its 21 Demands. The United States became the primary country resistung Japanese expansiion diplomar=tically. And this earned the enminty of the uktra-nationalists in the military. Japanese policy after World War I was dominated by two goals. First to gain control over China. Second to expanhd north so as to negate Bolshevick influence and obtain access to Siberian resources. Japan after seizing Manchuria (1931), invaded China proper (1937). Chinese resistance, however, proved more substantial and protracted than anticipated. Escalating American support for the Chinese further antagonized the militarists who had gained control over the Japanese Government. Japanese diplomacy fluctuated with the fortunes of the Strike North and Strike South factions of the military. After tghe German victories in the West, Japanese entry in the War was inevitable and was a matter of the military deptermining how the country could best take advantage of the war in Europe. This left the United States the only country capable of resisting Japanese agression in the Pacific. And to counterbalance America and Soviet power, the Japanese moved to cement a relationship with Germany and Italy through the Axis alliance. Hitler negotiated the NAZI-Soviet Niono-Aggression Pact without consulting the Japanese. This led to the defeat of the Strike North faction orientation within the military establishmnt. Even after the victory of the Strike South faction, Japanese diplomts feigned peace. American code breakers cracked the diplomatic Purple Code. The resulting decryots (Magic) gave the United States a true view of the country's intentions. (Ironically Magic proved to be the single best source of information on NAZI Germant during the War as the Americans red reports submitted by Japanese diplomats to Tokyo.)
Unfortunately for the Japanese, American diplomacy opposing their aggression in China distracted them from the obvious action, joining the NAZI assault on the Soviet Union. The American opposition to Japanese aggrssion in addition to supporting Britain thus proved to be the most decsisive diplomatic initiatives of the War. .
We note Russian authors addressing the subject of Soviet World War II diplomacy by beginning with the German Barbarossa invasion (June 1941). [Russian diplomacy ...] Actually that is only half of the story, but one many Russian authors who justifiably lionize the Great Patriotic War (1941-45) would prefer not to address. In fact Soviet diplomats were active before the invasion, both to resist German aggession and then to join in an alliance wuith Hitler and the NAZIs in order to carry out a series of aggrsssions of its own as a NAZI ally. Hitler's seizure of power shocked Stalin who had seized control of the Soviet state a few years earlier (1933). Soviet policy in Germany was to consider the socialist SDP as its primary enemy. Germany had a large Communist Party ((DKP) and the Soviets hoped they could eventially seized control. Thus they ordered the KPD to join with the NAZIs to bring down the SDP and Weimar Republic. Stalin was agast that within weeks of seizing contril, Hitker moved against the KPD, arresting its leadees and many members, many of whom would be killed in the Dachau, the first concentratiion camp. Hitler then ordered an end to the secret Rapollo military copperation. Soviet agents kept Miscow well informed on the secret NAZI remilitarization effort. The Soviets signed a mutual military assistance treaty with France (1935). As in World War I this would have meant a two-front war for Germany. The Soviets were the only country to offer significant support to the Republic during the Civil War. And as the War was waged, Communists assumed greater control over the Republic. The Munich Agreement was another shock for Stalin (September 1938). He concluded that the Allies were not going to resist Hitler and were prepared to encourage him to move against the Soviet Uniion, leaving the Red Army to fight Hitler alone. This led to the NAZI-Soviet Non-Agression Pact (August 1939). Both the Allies and the NAZIs courted the Soviets after Hiter seized Czechoslovakia (March 1939). Stalin chose to join with Hitler. It is cifficult to plot Stalin's thought process with any surity. So we do not know what were the deciding factors. Buiut the Paxt essenhtially partitioned Eastern and Central Europe, offering enormous territorial gains. The other major factor was a lack of confidence in the Allies. After Munich this was not unreasonable. But Stalin seems to have gone a step further, cinvincing himself that the Allies were trying to push him into a war with the Germans that he would have to fight alone. His political calculation was just the opposite that the Non-Aggression Pact would direct Hitler west and in a war with the Allies, both would be weakened, creating enormous opportunities for the Soviet Union. The Pact was a green light for war as Hitler could not have launched the War if the Soviets had backed the Allies. Stalin's calculation disaterously backfired. The quick German vivctoty in the West came as ahock to Stalin (June 1940). Thec destruction of the French army meant that he nowfaced the Germans along a long border without aowerful ally. For months Soviet policy was to appeased the Germany. They delivered enormous quantities of critical matrials. At the same tome they moved to expand territorially as forseen in the Non-Agression pact. Soviet diplomacy was to use foreign Communist parties and front irganizatiions to oppose defense spending in the West. Soviet diplomacy changed dramatgically when the country was rocked by the German invasion (June 1941).
Generalisimo Francisco Franco owed a great deal to Hitler and Mussolini. He probably could not have defeated the Republic without them. Much of the aid was free, but there were also loans, some $212 million which in modern terms would be in the billions. And there were ideological afinities, although no uniformity. It cetainly looked after the fall of France that Germany had won the War and wuith German armies on the Spanish, placating the Germans would have seemed to be a primary goal of Spanish diplomacy. And the Spanish Ambassador in Berlin dutifully presented a memorandum in which Franco declared he was "ready under certain conditions to enter the war on the side of Germany and Italy" (June 1940). Spain after 3 years of Civil War was in no conditiion to enter a major war, but at the time it looked like Britain would soon capitulate. The German Führer did not, however, encourage Franco's offer, believing the War was already won. In the ensuing weeks, two major development caused Franco to reconsider his offer. First, not only did the Brutish not capitulate, but they actually defeated te vaunted Luftwaffe in the Battle of Britain (September 1940). This had to give Franco pausee because ni country in Europe was more exposed to the Royal Navy than Spain, with extensive coasts on both the Atlantic and Mediterranean. Second, Admiral Canaris, head of te German Abwehr, who had worked with Franco during the Civil War, explained that Hitler ws prepariung to invade the Soviet Union ad would not divert resources to an expedition to Spain. Hitler in the meantime, frustrated by the stuborn British refusal to accept that they had defeated, now w more interested in Spanish entry into the War as a way of applying more pressure on Britain. Wehrmacht planners began developing Operation Felix, the seiuzure of Gibraltar which involved the German Army moving through Spain. Hitler and Franco met at Hendaye, France on the French border (October 23). The meeting did no go well. Hitler expected Franco out of gratitude to quickly join the Axis and willing accepot German troops. He did not and instead made demands, espcially demands for colonies in North Africa. These were demands that Hitler coild not meet without complicating his relations with Vichy and Italy. Hitler was not accustomed to be spoken to as Franco did. He told told Musolini that, "I would rathger have three or four teeth extracted than go through that again". After the meeting with Franco, he traveled on to meet with Pétain and Mussolini which also proved to be frustrating exercizes for the Führer, now accustomed to extreme deference. Not only did Franco not show the requisite gratitude, but he did not seem to understand (thanks to Canaris) that Hitler was the master of Europe. We are not sure to what extent Franco understood that if he joined the Axis and allowed German troops to enter Spai that it woukd fundamentally chanbge economic relations. Countries like Romania which joined the Axis no longer sold theur exports to Germany, but essentially donated them for the war effort. Spain would remain a non-beligerant, but wuth a tilt toward the Axis. Germany wold be allowed, for example, set up a radio listening operation in Spain. The Blue Division wa committed toi the campign against the Siviet Union. As the War went against Germany, Franco shifted to a more strict neutrality.
American diplomacy was aimed at assisting the German Government financially until Hitler seized power. The Dawes Plan helped stabilize the German economy. After Hitler seized power (1933), American diplomacy was hostile to the NAZI regime, but unwilling to take any real action because of the isolationist beliefs of the great majority of the American people which insisted on the passage of neutrality laws. The United States withdrew its ambassador, but did not break relations until Kristallnacht (1938). The Roosevelt Administration gradually moved America away from isolationism, especially after the fall of France. After Churchill became primeminister (May 1940), America and Britain gradually forged the greatest military alliance in history which envisioned in the Atlantic Charter a few months before Pearl Harbor (1941). Histories of the War generally focus on the dramatic German military campaigns during the first 2 years of the War when the United States was neutral. America was neutral, but among all the World War II combatants, the United States was the only country that had the human and industyrial resources to wage a global war. And while America did not intervene militarily, American diplomacy fundamentally altered the course of the War. First, The United States acted tonhelpn Britain continued the War, assistance that would eventually be formalized in Lend Lease. Second the United States destracted the Japanese from joining the NAZI assault on the Soviet Union and with the oil embargo virtually forced the Japanese to attack the United States rather than the Soviet Union. Of course Pearl Harbor of course changed everything, plunging the United States into the War. American diplomacy focused on the war time alliance with Britain and the Soviets. And as the Allies and Soviets reversed the Axis tide, the diplomacy of the War shifted to the post-War settlment.
"Russian diplomacy during WWII, " The Voice of Russia (May 6, 2010).
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