Figure 1.-- |
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Britain seized control of Egypt making it a kind of defacto colony (1882). The British interest was of course the Suez Canal which significantly shortened the sea route to India. The British granted Egypt independence (1922), but continued to station troops there and supported the royal Government, thus retaining political control. Egyptian forces played no role in the War, but the Suez Canal did. The British had it and the Axis, especially Mussolini wanted it. Mussolini ordered the massive Italian Army in Libya to invade Egypt (September 1940). A small British force defeated the Italians and drove them back into Libya (December 1940). The British drove into Libya and seemed poised to take Bengazzi. Hitler dispatched Rommel and a small German force which came to be known as the Afrika Korps. What followed was a see-saw battle in the Western Desert in which Rommel effectively taught the British the principles of modern mechanized warfare. Superior British forces, the interdiction of the Afrika Korps' supplies, and copious American supplies eventually led to the victory of the 8th Army at El Alemain (October 1942). The Axis persued a propaganda campaign to win over the Egyptian nationalists. The most imprtant faction was the openly Fascist Young Egypt movement. They decided not to openly attack the British and to await the Germans who never came. Colonel Gamal Abdul Nasser an early adherent of Young Egypt seized power after the War, overthrowing the royal government (1952).
India was the single most important colony in the British Empire. The most direct route between Britain and India led through Egypt even before the constructioin of the Suez Canal.
The Suez Canal was completed (1869) and thus made Egypr of great strategic significance in world affairs. It was very important in world trade. It also had considerable militatry importance.
The debt ridden Egyptian government sold its share in the Canal to Britain.
Ahmed Urabi led a revolt against European and Ottoman domination of Egypt (1882). Both Egyptian military officers and commoners were involved. British troops moved into Egypt to protect the Canal. The British expeditionary force quickly queled the Egyptoan revolt. The intervention was meant to be temporary, but British influence would be felt in Egypt into the 1950s. The British military foces would play a role in both World Wars. Some authors chage thzt Egypt was a virtual British colony, but in fact the British did not ibtervene significantly in domestic administrarive measures. Their focus was on the Canal.
Egypt after the construction of the Suez Canal became strategically important in the Euroean power balance. It represented a key link in the sea lanes connecting Britain and India--Britain's most important ally. Tewfiq Pasha attempted to modernize the Egyptian economy. He rurned over financial control to the British who began to administer Egyot increasinglyblike a colony. Egyptian nationalists resented Tewfiq's seeming submission to the British. They compelled Tewfiq Pasha to appoint Ahmed Orabi as Minister of War. This was unacceptable to the Allies who shelled Alexandria and seized Ismailiyya. The Allies defeated Orabi's army at Tel El Kabir. The British reinsstated Tewfiq as a suseriant puppet. Orabi was exiled. Mustafa Kamil assumed leadership of the Egyptian nationalist movement. By the outbreak of World War I, Egypt has become essentially a tacit British colony--especially in ecomiic terms. The Ottomans entered the War (November 1914). The Sultan declared a jihad, hoping to raise an Islamic revolt in Egypt. The Ottomans launched an unanticipated attack from Palestine, but were repulsed after heavy losses. The British build up a substantial force in Egypt. They were reiforced by ANZACs. The British launched an offensive into Palestine and with the Arab Army supported by Col. Lawrence on its flank pulverized the Ottomon Army and seized Damascus (1918). Fouad become Khedive, but was consided under British control by most nationalists. Sa'ad Zaghloul demanded autonomy which the Brish rejected (1918). The British arrestedand deported him to Malta. This caused anti-British riots. After the War, the British ended the protectorate and recognized Egyptian independence (1922), although retaimed comtrol over the government, economy, amd most critically the Suez Canal. Fouad was proclaimed King of Egypt (March 1922).
The British in an effort to address the rising tide of Egyptian nationalism, granted Egypt independence (1922). The British did not, however, withdraw from Egypt. The British did promote a range of fiscal, administrative, and governmental reforms.
The Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, Haj Amin el-Husseini, was at the forefront of resisting the British role in Arab coutries. Resistance was also developing in Egypt. Hassan el Banna founded the Muslim Brotherhood (1928). The Muslim Brotherhood from the beginning had links with thd Grand Mufti. The Brotherhood supported Palestinian actions against British administration and Jewish settlers, sending volunteer fighters (1936, 1939, and during the 1948 war). The goal of the Muslim Brotherhood was to establish Islamic states based on the Sharia (Islamic law) and to establish the Caliphate. This was a political regime based on Sharia and rule by a Caliph--a religious-political figure. While the Muslim Brotherhood has never seized power in Egypt, it has had a profound impact hroughout the Arab world.
Ahmed Hussein, a lawyer, founded The Young Egypt (Misr al-Fatah) movement (October 1933). It was an overtly Fascist political movement. The date of its founding was no accident. Hussein was impressed with Adolf Hitler and his NAZIs in Germany. How a lawyer could found a poliical movement based on the NAZIs who essentially rejected law is an interesting phenomenon. Young Egypt was a virtual paradoy on the NAZIs. Young Egypt had a paramilitary party militia, in their case with Green Shirts. There were also NAZI salute and Fascist slogans. They did not even bothere to create new slofans, but meerly tranlated NAZI slogans into Arabic. Both Nasser and Sadat, future Egyptian presidents, were influenced by Young Egypt.
Anwar Sadat was jailed by the British for his pro-German activities. Misr al-Fatah had been in contact with German agents since the 1936-39 Palestine uprising in Palestine. Sadat and other participants in the Free Officer movement also dealt with German military intelligence. Rommel's Afrikakorps advaced to El SAlemibe only 100 kilometers from Alexandria. They and much of the rest of the world expected them to reach Cairo in days (July 1942). Sadat and Nasser were in touch with the Germans. And in cooperation with the the Muslim Brotherhood they planned an uprising in Cairo to coordinate with thecfinal German offensive. Preliminary discussions envisioned a treaty with the NAZIs. The NAZIs offered an independent pro-Axis Egypt. Sadat promissed that "no British soldier would leave Cairo alive". After the Afrika Korps wasstopped at El Alamein, the British arrested Sadat and his co-conspirators. They spent the rest of the War in a British jail.
King Farouk rose to the throne (1936). The King became disliked by nationalists because of his willingness to cooperate with the British. His lavish. licetious lifestyle also became an issue with Islamicists. His reputation continued to decline during the War. He kept the lights of his Alexandria palace burning with the rest of the city was blacked out because of Axis bombing. Frouk also prevented his Italian servants from being interned by the British. Some say he told British Ambassador Sir Miles Lampson, "I'll get rid of my Italians, when you get rid of yours." Lampson was married to an Italian woman.) The Germans preceived the Egyptian political situation and did noy just deal with him. They conspired with Col. Nasser and the Free Officers Movement who in turn were working with with the Muslim Brotherhood to overthrow King Farouk. King Farouk after the War made an Egypt a have for NAZI war criminals and unrepententent NAZIs. This included military and intelligence personnel and ranking NAZI officials. Many were hired as "advisors". The Free Officers movement finally succeeded in over thring Faroul.
Britain and Egypt signed a treaty (1936). Egypt granted Britain thecright to station troops on Egyptian soil if needed to safeguard the Suez Canal.
As Europe began to move toward Wat, the Royal Navy moved the the headquaters of its Medeterranen Wat from Malta to Alexandria, Egypt. Malta became vulnerable because it was in range of Italian air attaks from Sicily.
NAZI Germany invaded Poland laubching World war II (September 1939). The Egyptian Governent
declared its neutarality. The importance of Suez, however, caused Britain to make Alexandria and Cairo important military bases. At first this had only a minor impact on Egypt. NAZI Germany was far away from Egypt and the German surface fleet very week. British and French naval power was dominahnt in the Mediterranean. The fall of France radically changed the military ballance (June 1940). Not only was Britain now alone, but Italy with a powerful fleet and with army forces in neigboring Libya declared war. This brought thecWar to the borders of Egypt.
Mussolini seeing French armies reeling from the NAZI invasion, declared war on France (June 10, 1940) He was afraid of losing out on the spoils. He also declared war on Britain. This meant that the Royal Navy was confronted with the prospect of fihting the mmodern Italian Navy. It also meant that the still small British Army in Egypt faced a massive militry force the Italians were building across the border in Libya. Unlike the French, the British successfully resisted the NAZI onlaught. The Dunkirk evacuation saved the British Army and te Channel stopped the Panzers. The Royal Air Force was able to fend off the mighty Luftwaffe. Thus the Italians would hve to fight. The Italians invaded Egypt with a force mny times the size of the British Army in Egypt. (September 1940). The Italians advanced ingto Egypt, but then stopped and set up a defensive position at Sidi Barrani.
Cairo before the War had a substantial Italian community. After Mussolini declared war, the British intenedcmost adult Italian males andcseized Italian property. The women were not interned, but left in poverty.
The British struck back with a smaller, but more mobile force (December 8, 1940). Indoan soldiers played a prominant role. Opperation Compass as planned by Major-General O'Connor involving attacking the Italian rear. This was possible because the Italian positions were not cloes enough to provide interlockig fire. Thus the British attacked through a gap in the defenses south of Sidi Barrani. The British attack was conducted with great secrecy. Most of the participting troops thoughtv they were involved in a training erercise. The British supported the attacking force with 25 pounder (11 kg) artillery and Blenheim bombers. They had a small number of Mk.II Matilda tanks. The British offensive was a huge success. Italian General Pietro Maletti was killed and 4,000 Italian soldiers surrendered at the onset of the fighting. In the first 3 days of the fighting, the British captured 237 artillery, 73 tanks, and 38,300 Italian soldiers. The Italian position collapsed. The British took huge numbers of prisoners. The Italians that could fled back into Libya. The British advanced west along the Via della Vittoria, through Halfaya Pass, and captured Fort Capuzzo in Libya. The 7th Armoured Division cut off the Italians attemoting to retreat. The British moved 800 km, in 10 weeks, reaching El Agheila. The British destroyed 400 Italian tanks and 1,292 artillery pieces and capturing 130,000 POWs. British casualties were extremely light. They suffered only 494 fatalities and 1,225 wounded.
Just as the O'Connor reached Al Argheila and prepared to seize the rest of Libya, Primeminister Churchill ordered the offensive stopped. The NAZIs were preparing to sattack Yugoslavia and Greece. Churchill had pledged Britush support to Greece and sone if O'Conner's force was dispatched to Greece. Only a few weeks later, Rommel and the lead elements of the Deutsches Afrikakorps would reach Tripoli. The Greek expedition would opove to be another British disaster,
It looked like the British would seize all of Libya. Mussolini pleaded to Hitler for assistance. Hitler chose an officer who proved himself in the campaign against the French--Erwin Rommel. The German force became known as the Deutsches Afrikakorps. The Germans began arriving (May 1941). This was Operation Sonnenblume. The arrival of the Germans changed the character of the Desert War.
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