Figure 1.--. |
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American made considerable industrial progress during the 19th century without a major scientific establishment. Americans proved very inventive and like inventions in Britain during the early years of the Indudtrial Revolution, major innovations were conceived by individuals with limited or no scientific backgrounds. The National Accadmy of Sciences was founded during the Civil War, but was primarily concerbed with academic matters and not public policy issues. Americans interested in science often went to Europe to study at prestigious universities. Many studied in Germany because of the prestig of German universities. One of those individuals was Franklin Roosevelt's half brother who was studying engineering. America's expanding university system and demand from growing industries stedily fueled the growth of its scientific establishment. The first limited government involvement with science was The New Deal's Science Advisory Board (1933), It was primarily interestd in social policy and got caught up in the debates over the New Deal and expanding role of government as well as conflicts with the NAS. It was as a result disolved. A major development began immediately after the NAZI take overin Germany (1933). The NAZI persecution of Jews and anti-NAZIS caused large numbers of scientists to flee the country. The list includes Hans Bethe, Albert Einstein, Enrico Fermi, Leó Szilárd, Edward Teller, Felix Bloch, Emilio Segrč, and Eugene Wigneramong many others. Many found refuge in the United States where American academics who knew them found positions at laboratories and universities across the country. America at the time was developing an important scienific establishment and the influx of refugee scientists, in some cases leaders in their field, significantly aided this process. Many would do some of their most important work in America. The foundation for modern American system of science policy was begun informally largely through the work of Vannevar Bush. Bush was a noted American scientist and was appointed to the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) (1938). Bus had become aware of the lack of coordination between scientists and the military while working on submarine detection systems. NACA efforts to imprive American military aircraft ran into problems with a budget minded Congress. Bush appealed for help from President Roosevlt who had already concluded that the United States needed to build a powerful airforce. The President made him his informal science advisor, the beginning of a relationship which continued throughout the War. Bush had contacts with the NAS which after Pearl Harbor was mobilized for the war effort. When President Roosevelt received a letter about German nuclear research, he turned to Bush. The result was the Manhattan Project. As a result, of America's growing scientific capabilities, unlike World War I, American science played a major role in World War II. American science stronly supported the war effort and a collaboration began with Britain, which had already mobilized its science establishment for the war effiort. The Anglo-America science establishment proved to be a fearsome factor in the War. American scientists achieved a wide range of notable accomplishments. Many were joint projects with the British who had many secret projects already underway giving American science and industry a jump start. The crowing chievement was the Manhattan Project which unlike many of the German secret weapons prgrams had a major impact on the War. The United States after the War began formulating a national science policy. Bush was a key player here and obtained the support of President Truman. This would play an important role in the Cold war. After the war we begin to see America increasingly dominating Nobel scientific awards
American made considerable industrial progress during the 19th century without a major scientific establishment. Americans proved very inventive and like inventions in Britain during the early years of the Indudtrial Revolution, major innovations were conceived by individuals with limited or no scientific backgrounds. The National Accadmy of Sciences (NAS) was founded during the Civil War, but was primarily concerbed with academic matters and not public policy issues. Americans interested in science often went to Europe to study at prestigious universities. Many studied in Germany because of the prestig of German universities. One of those individuals was Franklin Roosevelt's half brother who was studying engineering. America's expanding university system and demand from growing industries steadily fueled the growth of its scientific establishment.
The first limited government involvement with science was The New Deal's Science Advisory Board (1933), It was primarily interestd in social policy and got caught up in the debates over the New Deal and expanding role of government as well as conflicts with the NAS. It was as a result disolved.
The NAZI campaign against the Jews began almost as soon as Hitler seized power in Germany. he result was a wave of Jewish emigration. Even respected scientists were quickly dismissed from positions at universities and research institutes. Many of these individuals were able to emigrate and pursue their careers in America, France, and Britain. While many German Jews were unable to get visas, especially after Kristallnacht. Many scientists had the international contacts needed to obtain visas and most left Germany before it became more difficult to get out. This significantly increased the pool of talented scientists available to the American atomic bomb program. Some of the best known were Hans Bethe (Alsatian-German Jew), Albert Einstein (German Jew), Enrico Fermi (Italian with Jewish wife), Lise Meitner (Austrian Jew), Leo Szilard (Hungarian Jew working in Germany), Edward Teller (Hungarian Jew working in Germany), and Eugene Wigner (Hungarian Jew working in Germany). Some like Bethe did not look on himself as a Jew. Some authors believe that the dismissal of competent scientists and appointment of Party hacks was a major reason in the failure of the German bomb program. [Walker] Many of these nuclear scientists emigrated early in the NAZI era when the NAZIs were primarily concerned with dismissing Jews from universities and other official positions. Fremi came much later and managed to escape with his wife when he was allowed to go to Sweden to accept a Nobel Prize. Lise Meitner (1878-1968), escaped to Sweden just before the War with the help of Niels Bohr (another Nobel laureate). She later continued to work in the United States. History is full of unintended consequences. The Jews were essentially an easy target for Hitler and his NAZI thugs. Few expected retribution for their actions against the Jews. There were indeed few adverse domestic consequences. In fact the NAZIs probably gained support for these actions from anti-Semites as well as those who benefited from the jobs opened up and the property seized. The NAZI anti-Semitic campaign not only helped President Roosevelt build support for his policies opposing the NAZIs, but help with providing the United States scientific talent which help build the atomic bomb. If the NAZIs had not surrendered in May 1945, the atomic bomb could have been used on Germany.
The foundation for modern American system of science policy was begun informally largely through the work of Vannevar Bush. Bush was a noted American scientist and was appointed to the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) (1938). Bus had become aware of the lack of coordination between scientists and the military while working on submarine detection systems. NACA efforts to imprive American military aircraft ran into problems with a budget mindd Congress. Bus appealed for help from President Roosevlt who had already concluded that the United States needed to build a powerful airforce. The President made him his informal science advisor, the beginning of a relationship which continued throughout the War. When President Roosevelt received a letter about German nuclear research from Albert Einstein, thecmost eminent of the refuge sciebntists, he turned to Bush. The result was the Manhattan Project.
Bush had contacts with the NAS which after Pearl Harbor was mobilized for the war effort.
As a result, of America's growing scientific capabilities, unlike World War I, American science played a major role in World War II. American science stronly supported the war effort and a collaboration began with Britain, which had already mobilized its science establishment for the war effiort. The Anglo-America science establishment proved to be a fearsome factor in the War.
American scientists achieved a wide range of notable accomplishments. Many were joint projects with the British who had many secret projects already underway giving American science and industry a jump start. The crowing chievement was the Manhattan Project which unlike many of the German secret weapons prgrams had a major impact on the War.
The United States after the War began formulating a national science policy. Bush was a key player here and obtained the support of President Truman. This would play an important role in the Cold war. After the war we begin to see America increasingly dominating Nobel scientific awards
Walker, Mark. "The German Atomic Bomb" from "Heisenberg, Goudsmit and the German Atomic Bomb," Physics Today (January 1990).
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