Figure 1.--Navajo culture was radically changed after encountering the Spanish (16th century). This involved primarily the acquisition of livestock. Sheep was especially important. This is a wonderful photograph of a Navajo boy. We do not know who the photographer was and when it was taken. We would guess the 1920s.

The Navajo were the most important Native American tribe in the Southwest and the second most important of the 500 or so tribes, after only the Cherokee. The Navajo are grouped as part of the Apachean peoples. The Navaho refer to themselves as the Dine--the People. As with all Native American tribes there is no early written history. As a result scholars using the archeological evidence disagree as to just when the Navajo reached the Southwest. The predominant assessment at this time is that the Navajos migrated south from Canada along with other Apachean peoples, most prominently the Apache. A common bond is linquistics--Athapaskan languages. Before the development of DNA, linguistics was a principal tool in Narive American studies. Scholars speculate that the northern groups and those emarking on southern migrations separated (about 1000 AD). There is no reference to a northern origin or a long southern migration in the Navajo oral tradition, but rather a belief in travels through the underworld before emerging in the Southwest--specifically the La Plata Mountain of southwestern Colorado. Some believe that the Navajo displaced the Anasazi in the Four Corners area (14th century). Navajo lore has been accounts of interactions between the Navajo and Anasazi, so we know that the two groups encountered earch other. There is general agreement that the Navajo were well established in the Four Corners (15th century). The division between the Apache and Navajo seems to have occurred after they reached the Southwest. The Apache and Navajo are beliedved to have separated in fairly modern times (16th-17th century).

Cultural Group

The Navajo were the most important Narive American tribe in the Southwest. They are in fact the second largest North American tribe. The Navajo are grouped as part of the Apachean peoples. The Navaho refer to themselves as the Dine--the People. Today there is an an estimated 0.3 million members of the tribe.

History

The origins of the Navajo appear to trace back to northwestern Canada and Alaska As with all Native American tribes there is no early written history. As a result scholars using the archeological evidence disagree as to just when the Navajo reached the Southwest. The predominant assessment at this time is that the Navajos migrated south from Canada along with other Apachean peoples. Scholars speculate that the northern groups and those emarking on southern migrations separated (about 1000 AD). Here an important source of information is linguistic studies. There is no reference to a northern origin or a long southern migration in the Navajo oral tradition, but rather long travels through the underworld. Some believe that the Navajo displaced the Anasazi in the Four Corners area (14th century). Navajo lore has been accounts of interactions between the Navajo and Anasazi, so we know that the two groups encountered earch other. There is general agreement that the Navajo were well established in the Four Corners (15th century). The separation of the Apache and Navajo seems to have occurred after they arrived in the Southwest, probably about (16th-17th century). The Navajo interactions with Pueblo peoples were particularly importnt and mentioned by Spanush missioaries (17th century), some of the earlist historical records. Survivors from the Rio Grande pueblos sought refuge among the Navsjo after the the Spanish suppression of the Pueblo Revolt (1680). More Hopi abandoned their mesas as a result of drought and famine and merged with the Navajo. This was especially the case with Canyon de Chelly in northeastern Arizona. We see Pueblo artistic influences being adopted by the Navajo. This included painted pottery and weaving. The Navajo who at this time were raising sheep readily adopted Puenlo weaving techmology. Navajo blankets s are particularly prized examples of this developing art forms. Navajo ceremonialism such as dry-sand painting also evolved out of contacts with the Pueblo. Navajo silver jewelry dates from a nmuch later period (19th century, but was a product of contact with the Spasnish/Mexicans).

Language

A common bond is linquistics--Athapaskan languages. Before the development of DNA, linguistics was a principal tool in Narive American studies.

Religion

Navajo mythology descrive a long Underworld journey, in fact a journey through three or four Underworlds The Navajo believe that they finally emerged from the Underworld in the Southwest--specifically the La Plata Mountain of southwestern Colorado. The underworld is particulasrly important in Meso-American religion. Other versions have then emerging at the Navajo Dam area of northwestern New Mexico. The Navajo also believe the gods created the four sacred mountains--Blanca Peak and Hesperus Peak in Colorado, Mount Taylor in New Mexico, and the San Francisco Peaks in Arizona. There were meant to be the supernatural boundaries within which the Navajo were safe. The gods also created the four rivers to provide defensive barriers. The San Juan (modern name) was especially important. The San Juan appears in several Navajo chantway myths and. It also marked the boundary between between the Navajo and Ute territories. Simple rituals can be practiced by induvuiduals are famikies. More elabotate practices can be intricate and oprfessions have to consulted t conduct ceremonies. The most common rites were practiced for physical and mental problems. Ceremonies were often simply prayers or songs. Dry sand might incvlude pollen and flower petals. Thelargest ceremonies inckuded public dances and exhibitions in which hundreds or thousands of Navajo participated. The Nvajo hasve preserved some of these rites.

Economy

The ancestors of the Navajo were nomadic hunter gathers. Only after reaching the Southwest did they begin to farm. Here they were probably influenced by the Pueblo/Anasazi people they encountered. The Navajo began to plant corn, beans, squash, melons, and other crops the earlier people developed. After the Spanish conquest of the Aztec and other tribes in Mexico (16th century), they began to move north and encountered the Navajo. The Navajo gradually acquired Spanish live stock, both from raids and capturing feral animals. This radically chzanged the Navajp economy and lifestyle. They became part of daily life. The sheep became especially important. Sheep were an important source of clothes, blankets, and rugs. Sheep were also an important source of meet. Horses gave the Navajo increased mobility.

Housing

The Navajo adopted many cultural traits of the settled peoples in the Souhwest. They did not, however, adopt their housing. building cliff-side adobe villages. Rather the Navajo Indians lived in hogans. They were constructed from wooden poles, tree bark, and mud. The doorway always faced east so they would see the morning sun.

Clothing

The Navajo when they enountered the settled people of the Southwest sdopted a similar style of weaving.

Children

Babies were strapped to the mother using cradel boards. This allowed the child to be secure and permitted mother to continue working. This is well estblished in the photograohic record. But it was not uique to the Navajo. We know about it because phoiography was developed in time for it to be used in the Southwest. The photograohic record of eastern tribes is non-existent and very limuited for the Plains tribes. Papoose (from the Algonquian papoose, meaning 'child') is an American English word whose present meaning is 'a Native American child'. Cradle boards/child carriers were wudely used by Native Americvcans. They werev jknown by various names. In Algonquin history, the term papoose is sometimes used to refer to a child carrier. However, there are many different terms among the various tribes. Presumably the Americans helped spread the word among Natuve Anmerican people. Roger Williams first reported the word which he encountered in exchanges with the Narragansett tribe (1643). [Williams] He also reported the term was used for chilld cradle or carrier. This was commonly used by Native American people, although differen terms were used. Navajo children were raised in a comunal way with relatives playing a major role both in watching over them and teaching the tribal ways. Girls were taught food preparation, making pottery, basket weaving, and sewing. The boys learned to hunt and make tools, and weapons. Men were involved in agrucultureAfter puberty, the girls would live with the women until marriage. Boys would have to pass a test of courage to become a warrior and full member of the tribe. .

Reservation

The Navajo reservation is currently the largest Native Anerican in the United States. More than 140,000 Navajo live there. It consists of 16 million acres. It is lovated at the Four Corners, but the largest vpart is in Arizona.

Navajo Code Talkers

Communication is is a vital part of warfare. And it became especially important with the development of mechanized warfare. Radio became available fir the first time in World War II and provided a way for cpmmanders to remain in contact with fast moving mechanized ujnits as well as distant planes and naval units. The only problem was that radio broadcasts were vulnerable to interception by the enemy. They thus needed to be encoded. Codeing or encryption entailed delays and possible enemy codebreaking. The German answer to this poroblem was the Enigma Machine which unbeknownst to them the British cracked. The Americans cracked the Japanese codes. An American named Philip Johnston envisioned a code based on the Navajo language (1942). There were plenty of Germans and Japanese who spoke English who could work on breaking codes. Navajo speakers were a different matter. No matter how brilliant the code breaker, unless they spoke the lnguage, breaking the code was impossible. In fact, it is the characteristics of a language that make it possible to break many codes. Johnston was the son of a Protestant missionary and grew up on the Navajo Reservation. Many American boys loved to play cowboys and Indians. Philip grew up with the Indians. Growing up with Navajo children, he learned to speak their language. Johnston became an engineer for the city of Los Angeles. There wasn't much use for Navajo on the job. Johnston never forgot the Navajo and the language he learned as a boy. He loved to give lectures about the Navajo people and their culture to interested groups. After Pearl Harbor, it suddenly dawned on him that Navajo could be useful to American soldiers.

Sources

Williamd, Roger. A Key Into the Language of America,

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Created: 12:22 AM 3/12/2010
Last updated: 2:25 PM 6/28/2023