Figure 1.--This ceiling fresco depicts a youth in a lotus pond painted about 859 AD. It was done in the Sittanvasal Cave/Arivar Koil is a 2nd-century Jain complex of caves in Sittanavasal village in Pudukottai district of Tamil Nadu in southern Indai. The name cpmes frpm a Tamil word which means 'the abode of great saints (சித்தன்னவாசல்). It is a rock-cut monastery or temple created by the Jains and reflects the Budhist tradition of murals awall fresco painting. The painting has deteriorated, but you can still see a very sophisticated level of artistic expression, far avove anything in Europe. Sittanvasal has remnants of notable frescoes (7th centur)y. This is one of the latest paintings. The murals were painted with vegetable and mineral pigmanebts in black, green, yellow, orange, blue, and white. The painting was done over a thin wet surface of lime plaster.
Indian painting has the same lengthy tradition which prehistoric cave paintings just like Europe. Petroglyphs as found in places like Bhimbetka rock shelters, some of the Stone Age rock paintings found among the Bhimbetka rock shelters are dated to about 30,000 BP. Artistic expression seems to be a basic human impulse. This is about the same chronological age as European cave paintings, even though human presence on the Indian Subcontinent far outdates that of Europe. There is nothing like the ancient Egyptian painting in the Indian tradition. No paintings have been found from the Indus Valley civilization. The earlist painting other than the cave paintings seems to be found in Buddhist literature which describe palaces of the military and aristocratic class decorated with paintings. These appear to be paintings on walls as was the primary form of paintings at the time. The Ajanta Caves are the most significant of actual surviving early Buddhist paintings. Art scholars believe that small-scale painting was executed in manuscripts like European illustrted Bibles, but the only surviving examples date from the medieval era. Murals appear in ancient and early medieval times (2nd century BC to 8th – 10th century AD). Large scale wall painting anf frrescps dominated Indian art for an extended period. Herewe see a beautiful example (9th century). The most famous early Indian paintings date from the modern era -- Mughal paintings. They were minatures displayed in books rather thn painted on or hung on walls. This was a painting tradition resulting from a fusion of the Persian miniature with ancient Indian traditions (16th century). It is a rare devloped painting tradition from a Muslim-dpminated society which as a result of Koranic teachings prohibited the depiction of the himan form. This style spread throughout India as a result of Mughal conquests, nearly uniting India (17th century). It was adopted by the Indian princely courts of all religions and developed into an Indian style with many destinctive local diffrences. With the increasing presence of the Europeans then dominance of the British (18th century), Indian companies produced portaits for British clients. Indian was at first dominated by the British East India Company whuch ruled through Mughal emperors and local Nawabs (various spellings) meaning the princly states. After the Great Rebellion (1857), the period of Crown or direct rule began mmeanung the Raj (1858). It is during the Raj art schools appeared teaching European techniques. Modern Indian painting shows both the Western influence and the Indian roots.
Pre-history
Indian painting has the same lengthy tradition which prehistoric cave paintings just like Europe. Petroglyphs as found in places like Bhimbetka rock shelters, some of the Stone Age rock paintings found among the Bhimbetka rock shelters are dated to about 30,000 BP. Artistic expression seems to be a basic human impulse. This is about the same chronological age as European cave paintings, even though human presence on the Indian Subcontinent far outdates that of Europe.
Indus Valley Cvilization
There is nothing like the ancient Egyptian painting in the Indian tradition. No paintings have been found from the Indus Valley civilization.
Buddhist Era
The earlist painting other than the cave paintings seems to be found in Buddhist literature which describe palaces of the military and aristocratic class decorated with paintings. These appear to be paintings on walls as was the primary form of paintings at the time. The Ajanta Caves are the most significant of actual surviving early Buddhist paintings. Art scholars believe that small-scale painting was executed in manuscripts like European illustrted Bibles, but the only surviving examples date from the medieval era. Murals appear in ancient and early medieval times (2nd century BC to 8th – 10th century AD). Large scale wall painting anf frrescps dominated Indian art for an extended period. Here we see a beautiful example (9th century).
The Mughals doninated India for over two centuries and almost conquered the entire Sub-continent. The Mughal Empire at ists peak was the most powerful in the world measured in military and economic power-rivaled only by Ming China--cerainly not Europe. About all a quater of all world wide manufacturing occurred in India. [Dalrymple, p. xxvi.] And inevitably the economy is a major driver of the arts. The Mughals had a powerful impact on the the thoughts and arts of India. The artistic flowering under Akbar is one of the glories of India, expressed in painting, glass, and carpets. And of course one of the architectural treasures of all time is the Taj Mahal near Delhi. The Mughal Empire in the mid 16th century was arguably the greatest empire in the world. Shah Jahan commissioned the Taj Mahal (1630–1653). It was built at Agra as a tomb for his wife Mumtaz Mahal. She died giving birth to their 14th child and Shah Jahan never fully recovered. Art during this era, art was not limited to Mughal forms. India had an amazingly diverse society. The Mughals invaded India (16th century). The uninially tolerant Mughals came close to comquering the entire sub-continent). More austere Islamic emperors caused a reaction anf increasing Hindu resitance. The Mughals had a major impact on Indian art. They were at first less doctrinare about human depictions. The most famous early Indian paintings date from the modern era -- Mughal paintings. They were minatures displayed in books rather thn painted on or hung on walls. This was a painting tradition resulting from a fusion of the Persian miniature with ancient Indian traditions (16th century). It is a rare devloped painting tradition from a Muslim-dpminated society which as a result of Koranic teachings prohibited the depiction of the human form. Mughal art, however. is noted for the many beautiful mimatutres with human depictions. The minature was an established Indian art form before the Mughals. The Mughals adopted the minature, but did not follow musical set convention of Ragamaka painting. We suspect that the minature was perfect for the Mughals, allowing them to enjoy neautiduk art, including human depoctions, without showin the violation of Koranic prphibitios through public art. This style spread throughout India as a result of Mughal conquests, nearly uniting India (17th century). It was adopted by the Indian princely courts of all religions and developed into an Indian style with many destinctive local diffrences. An important type of Ibdian painting. are the Ragamaka, sets of miniature paintings depicting different musical modes. The Ragas dominated north Indian music abs art. Tewere not Amyghal, but they influenced Nughal art. The minature became a major Mughal artistic style. While not originated by the Mughals, it is during the Mughal era that the Ragamaka reached its peak of artistocratic aristocratic expression. And as Mughal power declined (18th century), Hindu art forms expanded despite increasing Europran (British) power and influence.
Europeans
The first Europeans to reach India were the Portuguese. Vasco de Gama roubded the Cape of Good Hope (1498). At first they and other Europeans began operated as traders under the permiion of th NughalEmoeror and ither Indian orinces. (16th-17th century). Afvance in military tactics and arms gave the Europeans the ability to not only trade, but to domnate the declining Mughal Empire and other princely states (mid-18th century). The British and French fought to control India. It shiiuks be stressed that this was not a fight between the regular armies of Brirain and France. There were some regular European military units involved, but the bulk of the armies were Indian seapiy formations formed and commanded by the British East India Comapmy and the French Compagnie française pour le commerce des Indes orientales (French Company for East Indian Commerce)-both private corportantiins and the much larger armoies of their Indian allies. By this time, the European (especially Britain) began to influence Indian arts. And we see the growing importance of painting. Indian companies produced portaits for British clients. Indian was at first dominated by the British East India Company whuch ruled through Mughal emperors and local Nawabs (various spellings) meaning the princly states. After the Great Rebellion (1857), the period of Crown or direct rule began mmeanung the Raj (1858). It is during the Raj art schools appeared teaching European techniques. Modern Indian painting shows both the Western influence and the Indian roots. Indian artists painted with European methods, but depicted classic Indian scenes. A good example is Raja Ravi Varma (1848-1906).
Sources
Dairymple, William. The Anarchy (Bloomsbury Publishing: Sydney, 2019), 522p.
