Figure 1.--The Afrikaaners and their primary political party, the National Party (NP), only 3 years after World War II and the defeat of horrifying racism, the NP took South Africa doiwn the same dark path of racism that had been defeted. The NP after winning the 1948 election began a radical expansion of the Apartheid System that already existed to a limited extent. From the beginning there were desenters which the NP Government severly supressed. Before 1948, white people in South Africa could freelt criticize Apartheid. This was no longer the case after the NP victory. Here children in 1960 are protesting the arrest of their parents. The press caption read, "Youngsters Demonstrate in Johannesburg: European, Asian and African children hold placards during silent demonstration today outside City Hall in Johannesburg, South Africa. Police arrested nore than 20 youngsters, raning from small children to 17-year-olds, who were protesting the jailing of their parents unser Soutyh Africa's emergency laws. Later they were released separately and told to go home. The youngsters' parents are among 1,700 adults of all races jailed in South Africa as suspected polirtical sunversibes." The photograph was dated May 14, 1960.
World War II powefully affected the dynamics of world politics. South Africa was one of the previous European colonies affected. The War had severely weakened the colonial powers. Many were occupied by the Germans (Belgium, France, Italy, and the Netherlands). Their ability to maintain their empires were thus severely weakened. And the Japanese had shown how tenuous the European colonial controls were. At the same time, the Axis defeat had undermined concepts which underpinned colonial empires, namely racial supremecy and imperial controls. As a result, colonial peoples throughout Asia and Africa began to press for independence. This process was different in South Africa as the country was already independent. It was the local white population not Britain that maintained an oprresive regime. As in the rest of Africa, the black majority began to demand basic rights. This took the form in South ASfrica of industrial strikes. As black workers were not legally able to form unions, this took the form of poorly organized wild-cat strikes. The Government vwas able to maintain order, but the strikes affected production. More importantly, they unervered the white minority. As a result, the right-wing National Party (NP) attracted a substantial number of English voters for the first time. The result was a decisive victory in the 1948 elections. This gave the Afrikaners who dominated the NP political control for the first time. They moved to expanded and strengthen the already existing Apartheid system. The NP leader was D.F. Malan who advocated stern measures against what he called the "black menace". It was at this time the the concept of "Apartheid" was coined and became the cornerstone of Government policy. The NP moved Apartheid from the economic sphere into the social sphere and attempted to control the private lives of both whites and blacks. The system was further complicated by the exitence of coloreds (mixed race people). The Apartheid sysytem developed by the NP was very complicated and involved, but in essence was based on three core elements. First, non whites were denined the right to vote and ultimately citzenship. Second, there were resrictions on land ownership and where the different racial groups could live. Third, racial intermarriage was prohibited. Marriage or actually any sexual realationship between the different racial groups was prohibited and crimanilzed. The races were separated in all public institutions and offices, public transport, and public toilets. A new education system was introduced. Previously there was very limited schooling available for blacks. Racial segregation was introduced in the public schools. The Bantu Education Act expanded black education, but had the goal of keeping black children at a very low educational standard suitable for menial labor and acceptance of white superority (1953). The Act however contains the seeeds of its own destruction. Whart ever its intentions, it expanded black education. It also left black education in the hands of black teachers, many of who did not accept the goals the Afrikaaner Government had in mind for black education. It is notable that the movement to end Apartheid traces its origins from student demonstrations.
Union of South Africa (1910)
Britain 8 years after the after the Treaty of Vereeniging unified each of the four South African states (Cape Coloby, Natal, Orange Free State, and Transvaal) into the Union of South Africa (1910). This includied the defeated Boer Republics The British attempted to win the alergianced of the defeated Boers by allowed each of the constituent states to retain franchise (voting) qualifications. At the time only the Cape Colony allowed non-whites if they met property qualifications to vote. The formation of the Union set in process the creation of a legal system of strict racial separation that was to be called Apartheid. With the creation of the Union, a new nation-wide legal framework was needed. The Union government from its creation introduced a series of laws that further curtailed the rights of non-whites. The first objective of white legislators was to legally restrict the rights of the black majority. Laws passed at this time established the cornerstones of the Apartheid system. The "Mines and Works Act" was the first step (1911). This restricted black workers exclusively to menial work in the country's most important industry. It thus guaranteed both the availability of cheap labor and preferred position of white employees. Tghe Government also prevented the formation of blasck labor unions and strikes. The next step was the Native Land Act (1913). This Act reserved 7.3 per cent of South African territory as reservations for mative black people. The Act also barred blacks them from purchasing land outside the reserved aread. Blacks were the vast majority of the Union's population, but as they were denied the right to vote, they had no way to exert political influence on the Union Government or the legislation which established the legal framework. As a result, black resistance movements began to form. The most important would be the African National Congress (ANC). The early organizers were inexerienced and a result these groups were at first poorly organized and had little impact. Thus their was little or no resistance to the white governments that ruled the Union of South Africa.
The Union of South Africa was created after the Boer War (1910). The Union consisted of the Cape Colony, Natal Colony, and the Boer republics of the Orange Free State, and Transvaal. The two major political parties, the South African Party and National Parties, merged to form the United Party in an attempt to unite Afrikaners and English-speaking whites (1934). The union did not last long, the two parties split only 5 years later (1939). The issue that split the United Party was joining Britain in war against the Germans. The Afrikaner dominated National Party sympathised with NAZI Germany in part because of the importance the NAZIs placed on race. Hertzog did not want to join the British in the War. He proposed that South Africa should remain neutral. Smuts wanted to support the British. Smuts won a narrow parliamentary vote. Smuts was appointed prime minister and South Africa declared war. The National Party left the United Party and continued to be pro-Germany even after the NAZIs invaded and occupied the Netherlands. South African units played an important role in early phases of the War before Britaon had fully mobilized its forces. The South Africans played a key role in the British campaign which defeated the Italians in East Africa (1941). They then proceeeded to play an important role in the Western Desert (1941-43). The South Africans also fought in the Italian campaign (1943-45). The South African forces were segregated. White troops (135,000) served in combat units. Africans and Coloreds (70,000) served in labor and transport units. South Africa was an important source of raw materials (platinum, uranium, and steel). South African ports (Durban and Cape Town) were also an import part of the Allied supply lines. This was especially important when the Axis had closed the the Mediterranean and supplies to the Desert Army had to flow around the Cape of Good Hope. They continued to be useful to supply Allied forces in India and Burma.
Impact of World War II
World War II powefully affected the dynamics of world politics. South Africa was one of the previous European colonies affected. The War had severely weakened the colonial powers. Many were occupied by the Germans (Belgium, France, Italy, and the Netherlands). Their ability to maintain their empires were thus severely weakened. And the Japanese had shown how tenuous the European colonial controls were. At the same time, the Axis defeat had undermined concepts which underpinned colonial empires, namely racial supremecy and imperial controls. As a result, colonial peoples throughout Asia and Africa began to press for independence.
Post-War Developments and Strikes
The post-War anti-colonial process was different in South Africa because the country was already independent. It was the local white population not Britain that maintained an oprresive regime. As in the rest of Africa, the black majority began to demand basic rights. This took the form in South ASfrica of industrial strikes. As black workers were not legally able to form unions, this took the form of poorly organized wild-cat strikes. The Government was able to maintain order, but the strikes affected production. More importantly, they unervered the white minority.
Election of 1948
The post-War strikes by black workers appears to have convinced many English voters to the right-wing National Party (NP) for the first time. The result was a decisive victory in the 1948 elections. This gave the Afrikaners who dominated the NP political control for the first time. South Africa was divided at the time of World War II. The Afrikaaner natioinalists meaningh the NP was a minority. They sympathized with the NAZIs and hoped for a negotiated peace if not a NAZI victory. South Africa played a role in the Allied victory over the NAZIs, but with the shift in English voters, the very people who were sympathetic with the NAZIs won the 1948 election and they weould set the contry on a path that South Arican soldiers haf so recently just played a role in defeating.
The majority of the white South Africans are Afrikaners. They were formerly known as the Boers. The term 'boer' is the Dutch word for farmers. The Boers today are the descendents of the Durch who founded Cape Colony in southern Africa (1652). The Dutch settlers initially estblished a colony at Cape Town near the strategic Cape of Good Hope to support shipping around Africa to Asia. French Huguenots (Protestants) fleeing religious supression arrived (1687) and inter-married with the Dutch. The strict Calvinism of the Boers and their conflict with the vast native population as well as conflivts with the despotic Dutch East India company developed a spirit of rugged independence in the Boers. The Dutch ceeded the Cape Colony to Britain (1814) near the end of the Napoleonic Wars in Europe. Conflict with the British began almost at once, but intensified after the British freed the slaves that the Boers still held (1834). The nationality question was finally settled by the Boer War (1899-1902). After World War II (1939-45) the Afrikaners, as blacks were not allowed to vote, gained political control and expanded the already existing Apartheid system. This was not ended until 1994 and Nelson Mandela's victory as the first democratically elected president of South Africa.
National Party Government
The NP Government moved to expanded and strengthen the already existing Apartheid system. The NP leader was D.F. Malan who advocated stern measures against what he called the "black menace". It was at this time the the concept of "Apartheid" was coined and became the cornerstone of Government policy. The NP moved Apartheid from the economic sphere into the social sphere and attempted to control the private lives of both whites and blacks. The system was further complicated by the exitence of coloreds (mixed race people).
Core Elements
The Apartheid sysytem developed by the NP was very complicated and involved, but in essence was based on three core elements. First, non whites were denined the right to vote and ultimately citzenship. Second, there were resrictions on land ownership and where the different racial groups could live. Third, racial intermarriage was prohibited. Marriage or actually any sexual realationship between the different racial groups was prohibited and crimanilzed.
Social Separation
The races were separated socially in all public institutions and offices, public transport, and public toilets.
Bantu Education Act (1953)
The NP Governmrnt introduced a new education system. Previously there was very limited schooling available for blacks. Racial segregation was introduced in the public schools. The Bantu Education Act expanded black education, but had the goal of keeping black children at a very low educational standard suitable for menial labor and acceptance of white superority (1953). The Act however contains the seeds of its own destruction. Whart ever its intentions, it expanded black education. It also left black education in the hands of black teachers, many of who did not accept the goals the Afrikaaner Government had in mind for black education. It is notable that the movement to end Apartheid traces its origins from student demonstrations.
African National Congress (ANC)
The African National Congress was founded by John Langalibalele Dube, who had studied in America, in Bloemfontein as the South African Native National Congress (SANNC) (1912). The primary mission from the beginning was to obtain voting rights to black and mixed-race Africans. With the advent of of the formal Apartheid System, the ANC made ending the Apartheid a priority goal. Followung the Bohr War, the Union of South Africa was formned and began the systematic legal oppression of black and other non-while people n South Africa. The Land Act was the primary legal instrument (1913). The Act forced many black South Africans from their farms into the cities and towns to work. It also restricted their movement within South Africa. The SANNC led a campaign against passes--ID cards that black South Africans had to carry. The ANNC made little origress in the legal system and greadully began to decline (mid-1920s). Other groups competed for politucal influcence with the black majority including the Industrial and Commercial Workers' Union (ICU) and the Communist Party which had been all-white. The name was changed to the African National Congress (1923). The ANC supported a militant mineworkers' strike (1929). ANC President J.T. Gumede suggested co-operation with the Communists as part of an effort to revitalise the organisation (1927). He was voted out of office (1930s). This led to the ANC becoming largely ineffectual. This only began to change after World War II when the ANC was remodelled by young activiusts as a mass movement. The ANC continued to use legal efforts and nonviolent protests to end apartheid. As the protests becamne mire effective, the South African Government responded with increasingly violent police tactics. The Sharpeville Massacre resulted in the deaths of 69 black Africans was a turning point (1960). The Charles Robberts Swart Administration banned the ANC and forced the party to go underground (April 1960). The ANC responded with the Umkhonto we Sizwe (Spear of the Nation), adopting violence to fight Aapartheid, utilizing guerrilla warfare and sabotage. Over time the ANC turned to Nelso Mandela who had bee imprisoned for nearly three decades. Finally with the Soiuth African economy increasingly affected by international sabctions. State President F. W. de Klerk lifted the ban on the ANC and released Nelson Mandela on 11 February 1990. Soiuth Afriucans voted to end Apartheid (March 1992). Since the 1994 election the ANC has been the dominant party in South Africam elections.
Anti-Apartheid Groups
The United Democratic Front was the most important legal group opposing Apartheid. There was an anti-apartheid activist group of World Ware II ex-serviceman named the Springbok Legion. The first mass anti-apartheid movement of whites with included 60,000 members, including a large proportion of Jews.
Nelson Mandela is one of the important figures in the long, tortured history of freedom. His father was a Thembu nobel who gave up his claims to become a Chistian and a lawyer. From a young age he became interested in fredom for his people. He became a lawyer like his father, founding South Africa's first black law firm and worked to resist injustic through the legal system and non-violent action. When increasing police violence made this impossible, he led the African National Congress' violent action campaign -- Umkhonto weSizwe (Spear of the Nation). He is described as a black nationalist, but in the history of freedom he was much more. The Nelson Mandela Foundation explains, "Nelson Mandela never wavered in his devotion to democracy, equality and learning. Despite terrible provocation, he never answered racism with racism. His life is an inspiration to all who are oppressed and deprived; and to all who are opposed to oppression and deprivation." [Nelson Mndela Foundation] He became the first black president of South Africa (1994-99). His negotiations in the early 1990s with South African Pres. F.W. de Klerk helped end the country's apartheid system of racial segregation and ushered in a peaceful transition to majority rule. Mandela and de Klerk were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1993 for their efforts. Unlike many recipienrs, Nelson Mandela truly earnbed it.
Black Homelands
Portuguese Carnation Revolution (1974)
A major factor in South Africa's Apartheid system was the shield of OPortugese colonies tobthe eastv and West, Angola and Mozambu=ique. Portugal was a small, poor European state. And suporting two colonil wars, even low intensity colonial wars, was a strain on the country's weak economy. Antonio Salazar's Estado Novo did nothing to build a real new state and a prosperous econonmy. Salazar was Europe's longest serving crypto-Fascist ong-time dictator Antonio Salazar was incapacitated by a cerebal stroke (1968). President Tomás asked Marcello Caetano, an architect of the Estado Novo form a government. The ailing Salazar was notr informed of this attempted transition. Salazar died (1970), Caetano did not have the dictastoril insticts of Salazar. And Porygal's poverty stricken economy was in sharp contrast to the restb of Western Europe. The two colonial wars did not cause the economic cinduitions, but ere a drag in the ecomy, espcially wih an economic diwn turn (1973-74).
Left-wing Potuguese military officers staged a coup shateredcthe remains country's Fascist Government (1974). Enthusiatic people flooded into the streets to greet the military's action. People inserted red carnations into the barrels of guns. They demanded 'land for those who work in it' in the still, largely agricultural nation. In most left-wing revolutions, people duid not het land. They became workers on Government collectives. The coup became the Carnation Revolution. Trade unions, artists, and women played an imprtant part in the Revolutionin the revolution, a rare sucessful left-wing revolution that open the way for economic success. One of the first actions by the Junta was to end Portuguese colonial role, leading to the independence of Angola and Mozambique. And with the instatement of revolutionary governments in both countries, the African National Congress began to receive support forv its effort to destroy Apartheid.
Sowetto (1976)
Sowetto is an area approved by South African British Dominion Government for Black residence. It was located on the southwestern outskirt of Johannesburg. The name is an acronym derived from the Afrikaans for South-Western Townships. It began to grow substantially after Witkd War I into South Africa's largest Black urban center. Soweto grew into an area of shantytowns and slums that swelled with the arrival of Black workers moving from rural areas where jobs were hard to find and living conditions primative. Growth was haphazard with little or no actulm plsnning. Sowetto lacked the municipal services and government prevslnt in White muncipslities. Slum clearance and permanent-housing programs only began after Workd ar II (1948). It was only at this gtime time that local asuthoities were appointed and ational authorities took any interest. The population unlike most other areas of South Africa, representing a mix of sometimes hostile Black tribal groups creating a sometinmes tense sutuation. It grew into a huge urban settlement, commonly lrger than the Fovernment's populatiion estimates. One estimate was over one million (mid-1990s). Because it as the largest Black municipality, Soweto were often the vabgusrd for Black denmands for equality and justice during the Aartheid era. Their struggkle was brougfgt to world attention with a massive uprising -- the Soweto Rebellion (1976). This began when school students began protesting a new Government’s policvy that tyhe Afrikaans language be used as the medium of instruction in Soweto high schools. The students precipitated the most profound challenge to the South African Apartheid that had occurred up to that time. Amy asdults were shamped into resistance by the school children. This began a major campaign by the African National Congress to end Apsrtheid. .The international media gave huge attention to theresulting bloodshed as the South African security forces put down the rioting. Unreported was the level of violence in Siwetto among the Black population, in psart bcause of the differing tribal groups. Today in South Africa, the level of crime and violence is unprecdented, literally tearing the country apart.
International Boycott
Sources
Cardeira Varela, Raquel. A People’s History of the Portuguese Revolution
