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Our modern world has evolved in Western Europe and its North American offshoot. It is basically the history of Western civilization. This is to extent politically incorrect as many in the academic community are committed to the ideology of cultural relativity. They believe it is an exercize in xenepobia to focus to intently on Western civilization. It is, however, asimple fact that the West has invented modernity. This is not to say that all aspects of Western civilization are valuable contributions to humsan history. After all, 20th century totalitarianism (both Communism and Fascism) are artefacts of Western Civilization. But they were both threads that were defeated by the major threads of Western civilization and this from the very beginning in ancient Greece centered on the importance of the individual. The paradox of Western civilization was present at this very beginning. The Greek focus on the individal spring from a slave society. From this focus on the individual came both democracy and an explosion of learning, including scientific insights that would not be replicated until the Renaisance. To the Greek foundation, the Romans added another important element of Western civilization--the rule of law. With the fall of Rome and the Germanic barbarian invasions, the ancient basis of Western civilization was essentially lost. It was not recovered until the Italian Renaissance stimulated interest in the classical texts. And the result was a shift in Ruropean thought from God back to the individual. The Reformation in Germany began as a largely theocratic and nationalistic movement. But there we a range of collateral impacts. It prevented the Roman Church from limiting intelectual discourse, at least in northern Europe. It also as a result of translations of the Bible into the developing "vulgar" languages, stimulated literacy and learning. The Enlightenment took the next step, questioning both religion and absolutism. French phiosophes played a major role in the Enlightenment, but English thinkers like Locke also played an important role. The French and British engaged in a world-wide struggle for dominance in the 18th century which was not finally settled until Trafalgur (1805) and Waterloo (1815). As a result, it would be the English-speaking people that would essentially invent modernity. France was the larger, stronger country, but it was crippled by absolutism, including the Bonapartes, the Revolutionary Terror, and the Bonapartes. France did not overthrow its absolutist traditions until defeat in the Franco-Prussian War gave birth the the Third REpublic. It is no accident that the Industrial Revolution occurred in Britain. The developing democracy, relatively open society, and capitalist system all contributed to the Industrial Revolution. And the Developments in Russia and Germany led to terrible totalitarian regimes in the early 20th century. Britain and France were unable to stand up to these totalitarian regimes by themselves. But Britain's victory over the French allowed them to implant British political traditions in North America and the combined forces of the English-speaking people made possible the victory over totalitarnism.
The central genius of ancient Greece centered on the importance of the individual. This freed Greek thinkers to break away from the religious constraints to thought that fettered other ancient civilizations. The paradox of Western civilization was present at this very beginning. The Greek focus on the individal spring from a slave society. The Greeks struggled against absolutism, over troeing kings and defeating Persian emperors. And within Greece was the struggle between democratic Athens and otalitarian Sparta (so admired by the NAZIs). From this focus on the individual came both democracy and an explosion of learning, including scientific insights that would not be replicated until the late-Renaisance.
To the Greek foundation, the Romans added another important element of Western civilization--the rule of law. Again Rome struggled with absolutism, the conflict between the Republic and the Empire. Even after Augustus established the Empire, he retained the fiction of the Republic with the Senate. And under the Empire, Roman law continued to operate.
With the fall of Rome and the Germanic barbarian invasions, the ancient basis of Western civilization was essentially lost. The Medieval era was an extemnely extended peruod of European history. And there were some bright spots. The Irish monestaries helped to preserve classical texts. And Islamuic Spain with the assistance of Jewish linguists helped to revover classical texts lost to the West. The rise of the medieval universities was a major step in Europe's movement toward modernity.
It was not recovered until the Italian Renaissance stimulated interest in the classical texts. And the result was a shift in Ruropean thought from God back to the individual.
The Reformation in Germany began as a largely theocratic and nationalistic movement. But there we a range of collateral impacts. It prevented the Roman Church from limiting intelectual discourse, at least in northern Europe. It also as a result of translations of the Bible into the developing "vulgar" languages, stimulated literacy and learning. The impact of the Renaissance has been much debated. One important author has connected Protestantism with the rise of capitalism. [Weber] Weber argues that Protestantism led to thrift and capital accumulation leading to capitalism. We are not sure about this, but it is certainly needscto be considered. We think that the Protestant challenge to the Roman Church and then the splintering of Luther's Prootestant Church into a mulditude of different denominations meant that no one religion could dominate Europe. The imapact was that religious authorities were no longer strong enough to stifle scientific and political discourse, at least in northern Europe.
The first military confrontation in the construction of the modernn world was the struggle with the Catholic Hapsburgs, especially Catholic Spain. Spain after six centuries of struggle finally completed the Reconquista with the conquest of Grenada (1492). Ferdinand and Isabella made possible the unification of Spain. And in the same year that Grenada fell, Colunbus reached the America's and in a few years, gold, silver and other wealh would be flowing into Spain in prodigious quantities, making the country a European super power. But others events were falling into place at the time leading to one of Europe's major conflicts. Charles the Bald, Duke of Burgundy died (1477). As a result of the standard Hapsburg policy of marital politics, the wealthy Low countries controlled by Charles passed to the Hapsburg Emperor, Maximillian I. Although small in area, the Lowlands were the wealthiest areas of Europe. Soon after, Maximillioan's son marroed the heir of Ferdinand and Isabella. This meant that under Charles V, the Hapsburgs cointrolled much of Europe. And it was during the reign of Charles V that Luther launched the Protestant Reformation and and the Catholic effort to stamp out the Protesant heresy. This struggle was a first fought argely in German, but under Charles' son Philip the struggle shifted first to first the Netherlands and then England. Philip attempt to impose absolutist rule on the Dutch who had considerable authonomy under Burgundian rule. The spread of Protestantism in the Lowlands escalated the conflict. The result was the Dutch War of Independence. The tiny United Provinces would seem to have little chance against the immense Spanish Empire. Philip was also interested in England. He married Queen Mary and for a time a child was expected which would have perpetuasted Catholic rule. When Mary died without child she designated Philip as her heir. It was Elizabeth of course who followed Mary. And when Elizabeth offered support to the beleagered Dutch, a conflict between England, a still small kingdom, and the might of Spain became inevitable. Philip had both a clsaim to the crown and the military might to seize the kingdom.
Capitalism is often seen as an English creation, perhaps because of Adams Smith book, The Weath of Nations. In facr, modern capitalism was a Dutch invention. It was the English that persued it on a far greater scale with a larger empire than the tiny Neherlands was able to do.
Liberalism is difficult to define because concepts have changed over time. Scholars like Hume, Locke, Mill, and countless others have wrote a great length on what liberalism is. Cut to te core, liberalism is a belief in freedom and liberty. The liberal tradition began to develop in the 16th century at the very dawn of the modern age when governments attempted to contro thought and expression as well as political and economic life. Liberalism thus developed as a reaction to the Cathloic Inquisitions attempt to supress Protestantism and divine right monarchies attempt to supress political discent. This is not to say people at the time enbraced the idea of liberalism and freedom. Early Protestants were in many ways nearly as intolerant as Catholics. The only thing is that Protestantism because it promoted lay reading of the Bible and religious thought, morphed into so many different sects that toleration was vurtually forced upon them. Ojnly later did toleration began to be seen as desirable in itself. And likewise those who opposed divine right monarchy, suh as Cromwell could be as dictatorial as the kingsd they replaced. But again by opening up the political system to the common man, eventually forced a degree of toleration in the political realm ad the development of democratic institutions to channel democratic rule. The great political philosophers did not begin to write about liberalsim until the 18th century enlightenment. The liberal thesis was extended to economics by Adam Smith's wealth of nastion in which he promoted the ideals of economic liberalism in The Wealth of Nations. One might imagine that a centralized, absolutist state would emerge victorious in any confrontatiomn with liberal states rent with internal divisions. This is especially the case as absolutist regimes (Catholic Spain, and France, Napoleonic France, Willimite Germany, NAZI Germany, Imperial Japan, Soviet Russia and Maoist China) amassed huge empires and military power. And at times they confronted tiny opponents. The United Provinces for example was the size of Maryland. Even England when it cofronted Philip II's Spain and Louis XIV's France had a fraction of the population and national wealth. And more recently it was England which stood alone against much of Europe conquered first by Napoleon and then NAZI Germmany. But since the time of the Great Armada, it has been the liberal Anglo-Saxon regimes that have greated the authoritarian or absolutist powers of the day. One has to ask how that could have occurred. An important shift in liberalism has occurred in the 20th century. Liberals who out of power once resisted state power have in the 20th century when obtaining power have come to endorse the growth of government power and the use of that power in addressing social concerns.
The French and British engaged in a world-wide struggle for dominance in the 18th century which was not finally settled until Trafalgur (1805) and Waterloo (1815). As a result, it would be the English-speaking people that would essentially invent modernity. France was the larger, stronger country, but it was crippled by absolutism, including the Bonapartes, the Revolutionary Terror, and the Bonapartes. France did not overthrow its absolutist traditions until defeat in the Franco-Prussian War gave birth the the Third Republic.
The Enlightenment took the next step, questioning both religion and absolutism. French phiosophes played a major role in the Enlightenment, but English thinkers like Locke also played an important role.
It is no accident that the Industrial Revolution occurred in Britain. The developing democracy, relatively open society, and capitalist system all contributed to the Industrial Revolution. It is curious how 20th century totalitarians like to present their ssytem as new and modern. Marxists painted Communism as a new scientific system. Hitler called the NAZI regime the New Order. And would be totalitarians like Hugo Chavez in Venezuela talks about his :"New Socialism". Yet these regimes are essentuially repackaging of the absolutism (beith religious or political) that Western civilization has struggle against.
And the Developments in Russia and Germany led to terrible totalitarian regimes in the early 20th century.
Britain and France were unable to stand up to these totalitarian regimes by themselves. But Britain's victory over the French allowed them to implant British political traditions in North America and the combined forces of the English-speaking people made possible the victory over totalitarnism.
Mead, Walter Russel. God and Gold: Britain, America, and the Making of the Modern World (Knopf, 2008), 449p.
Smith, Adam. The Wealth of Nations.
Weber, Max. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism.
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