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We have few details at this time on the research and production prgrams for poison gas during the inter-war era. We believe with the end of World War I (1919) and international steps to outlaw chemical warfare (1922-25) that reserach for the most part ceased. We have no information on the Soviet Union but this for the most part appears to be the case. As a result, the chemical weapon stock piles at the onset of World War II were for the most part the same basic chemical agents used in World War I -- priarily phosgene. Germany and Japan were exceptions. The Germans were of course probited from manufacturing poison gas under the terms of the Versailles Treaty. (1919) There was no prohibition about pesticudes. German chemist Gerhard Schrader completed the synthesis and purification of tabun, a potent nerve agent. This was not reserach funded by the Army. Schrader's research was aimed at creating a pesticide, not a chemical weapon. The chemical he created, however, was so potent that Army researchers become involved. They call it taboo, or Tabu in German, from which it takes its name. The NAZI seized control of Germany (1933). With their rearmament program, poison gas was again produced. The Army stockpiked nerve agents, but did not use them in World War II. The Japanese became interested in a chemical weapn program after the Germans introduced chemical warfare during World War I (1915). Later they began a major research program to produce chemical and biological weaons (1932). The major facility was the infanous Unit 731 in Harbin, Manchuruia. We have little information about facilities in Japan. Later they also initiated a nuclear program. We note civil defense exercises simulating a chejmical attack. We are not sure to what extent research was conducted in secret. We do not yet have details on the chemical weapons programs of the Allies (Britain and France) during the inter-War era. Nor do we know a great deal about the United states yet. We believe the Allies relied primarily on World War I agents.
Organized research into chemical warfare agents began in Britain and France after the German chlorine gas attack (1915). We do not yet have details on the chemical weapons programs of the Allies during the inter-War era. We believe the Allies relied primarily on World War I agents. The British have been accussed of uing chemical eapons in Mesopotamia during the Iraq Revolt (1920). Here historians disagree.
Organized research into chemical warfare agents began in Britain and France after the German chlorine gas attack (1915). We do not yet have details on the chemical weapons programs of the Allies during the inter-War era. We believe the Allies relied primarily on World War I agents. Spanish and French forces dropped mustard gas bombs against Berber rebels and civilians during the Rif War in Spanish Morocco (1921–1927). These attacks marked the first widespread employment of gas warfare in the post-World War I era. [Rada]
It was the Germans who introduced the horrors of chemical warfare, first using clorinr gas during Woirld War I (1915). The Germans were of course after the War prohibited from manufacturing poison gas under the terms of the Versailles Treaty (1919). There was no prohibition about pesticudes. German chemist Gerhard Schrader completes the synthesis and purification of tabun, a potent nerve poison. This was not reserach funded by the Army. Schrader's reserach was aimed ar creating a pesticide, not a chemical weapon. The chemical he creates is so potent that Army researchers become involved. They call it taboo, or Tabu in German, from which it takes its name. This was before the NAZIs seized control of Germany (1933). With the massive rearmament program Hitler began ignoring the Versailles Treaty and launched, poison gas was again produced. The Army stockpiled nerve agents, but did not use them in the War. This was by far the most potent secret weapon they possessed. Why Hitler didn't use it is one of the great unknowns of Wold War II. Iy is often said it was because the Alli woulkd retaliate, but we suspect there ius more to the story. The Allies hd no ide about the NAZI nerve agents.
We do not know about Italian reserch or production of poson gas. We do know that the Italiansused poison gas in both the Libyan campaign (1920s) and Ethiopian campaign (1930s). The attacks in Libya would have been done wityh World war I stockpiles, but the 1935-36 attacks in Ethiopia must have been done by more recently produced gas weapons.
The Japanese engaged German forces in China during World War I. This was before the appearance of chemical weapons. They of course would have noted the the use of chemical weapons in Europe. Col. Chikahiko Koizumi helped form a secret poison gas research committee when he and other Imperial Japanese Army officers were impressed by the German use of chlorine gas at the Second Battle of Ypres (1915). [Williams and Wallace, p. 44.] Col. Koizumi would be Japan's Health Minister (1941-45). He was closely associated with IJA surgeon Shirō Ishii (石井四郎) who began advocating for a Japanese poison gas program (1927). Ishii began a 2-year study trip abroad (1928). When he returned home he began advocating within IJA cicles for the creation of a Japanese biological and chemical research unit (1930). He argued that the Western powers were developing these weapons and this was a danger to Japan which needed its own program. Ishii was closely connected to War Minister Gen. Sadao Araki. Araki was one of the principal theoritician of the radical nationalist right-wing faction in the IJA. He served as Minister of War under Prime Minister Inukai. Araki helped to create the Army Epidemic Prevention Research Laboratory (AEPRL) (1930). And Ishii was given command of a secret research group--the Tōgō Unit. It pursued chemical and biological experimentation in newly seized Manchuko (Manchuria) which allowed for greater secrecy and a ready source of human experimental subjects. Ishii received this appointment because he had been advoicating for chemical weapons reserrch. The major facility was the infanous Unit 731 in Harbin, Manchuruia. We have little information about facilities in Japan. Later they also initiated a nuclear program. We note several civil defense exercises simulating a chemical attack. They clearly show that chemical warfare was on the mind of the military officers leading Japan into war.
The Germans used poison gas on the Russians during World War I. Actual information is sketchy, but available information suggests that the Russians suffered nore than any other country as a result of German gas attacks. It is believed that half of all the soldiers killed by chemical weapons during the War were Russian. Some 56,000 Russians were killed by chemical agents in Worlkd Wa II. Over 0.4 million were injured. [Brooke] The Russians responded with military chemical projct of their own, supplying the Russian Army with several chemical warfare agents, chemical ammunition and personal protective equipment. [Grigoryan and Yegorov] We are not sure about the Russian Civil War, but we know that Lenin authorized the use of the poison gas during the Tambov Rebellion (1921). Ghis was the largest and best-organized peasant rebellion challenging the Bolshevik government. An order signed by military commanders Tukhachevsky and Vladimir Antonov-Ovseyenko stipulated, "The forests where the bandits are hiding are to be cleared by the use of poison gas. This must be carefully calculated, so that the layer of gas penetrates the forests and kills everyone hiding there." [Radzinsky, p. 173.] Presumably the gas used was World War I stockpiles. The Soviet Union also employed poison gas in Xinjiang (1934). [Pearson] This was the Soviet invasion of the northwestern Chinese region of Xinjiang. White Russian forces reportedly assisted the Soviet Red Army. We do not, however, at this time have any informnation on the Soviet poison gas program. The Soviet Union signed the 1925 shortly after it became effective Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare (1928).
Spanish and French forces dropped mustard gas bombs against Berber rebels and civilians during the Rif War in Spanish Morocco (1921–27). We are not sure where the Spanish got the gas combs, presumably from the French. These are the furst confirmed widespread gas attacks in the post-World War I era. [Rada] The Spanish Army indiscriminately used phosgene, diphosgene, chloropicrin and mustard gas against civilian populations, markets, and rivers. [Noguer] Spain signed the Geneva Protocol (1925), which prohibited the use of chemical and biological weapons in international conflicts, while using these weapons in North Africa. [Aguilar].
The Unites States began working on poison gas after the Germans introduced it during World War I (1915). American reserachers only began working in chemical warfare after the United States entered the War (1917). Despite reports of chemicl agents being bused on the Western Front, the United States did not at first begin working on poson gas
The Bureau of Mines approiched the the National Research Council (NRC), offering Bureau's unique and specialized laboratories to reserch poison gases. Only ewith the U.S. declaration of war on Germany did the NRC form the Committee on Noxious Gases to oversee research programs on poison gases Thy weere focused in sulfur mustard and subseqwuently Lewisite. American reserchers quicklly developed sulfur mustard and Lewisite during the the War (1917-18). They 'improved' mustard has, but Lewisite was a new agent. After the War they developed nitrogen mustard. These were more potent tha World War I mustabrd gas, but no where near the leathily of German nerve gaents.
Lewisite (C2H2AsCl3) is a vesicant (blister agent) based on contains organic arsenic. A U.S. chemical warfare research laboratory during World War I investigated arsenic compounds for potentil military pplivations. They producuced this potent vesicant which ws named 'Lewisite' after the research group director. Lewisite like mustard gas is a cellular poison, but ib=nvolves a different mechanism than sulfur mustard. I As in Britain nd France, much of the research was focused on methods of mass production of sulfur mustard, development of other vesicants rather than whole new agents. There ws also a focus on better gas masks and other equipment to protect troops from chemical attack. A presidential order transferred the research program from civilian control under NRC to military control under the War Department. [Pechura and Rall] The War Department meant the U.S. Army. (Until after Workd War II, the Navy was controlled by a sepoarmte NAvy Department. (Both were cabinent level agencies.) This move cretated the U.S. Army Chemical Warfare Service (CWS). We note that the United States was still stockpiling and running tests on mustard gas Leesite during the early phase World War II. Mustard gas was a World War I chemical weapon only slightly improved during the inter-War era. No advanced chemical weapons were developed. Army reserachers were interested if race affected the effectiveness of chemical gaents. [NPR]
Brooke, James. "Russia's gas warfare history," The Moscow Times (September 3, 2013).
Budko, A.A. and Yu V Ivanovskii, "Use of chemical war gases at the Russian-German front during the First World War," in Russian Voen Med Zh Vol. 337, No. 2 (February 2016), pp. 75-81.
Grigoryan, Maria and Oleg Yegorov. "How Russia countered Germany’s chemical weapons in WWI," Russia Beyond (August, 8 2018).
National Public Radio (NPR). "Secret World War II chemical experiments tested troops by race," (June 22, 2015).
Noguer, Miquel (July 2005). "ERC exige que España pida perdón por el uso de armas químicas en la guerra del Rif", El País>/i> (July 2005).
Pechura, Constance M. and David P. Rall, ed. "3. History and analysis of mustard agent and Lewisite research," in Veterans at Risk (National Center for Biotechnology Information/National Academies Press: Washington, D.C., 1993).
Pearson, Graham S. "Uses of CW since the First World War". Federation of American Scientists.
Rada, Javier (September 2006). "Los últimos de Alhucemas" 20 minutos.es. (2007?).
Radzinsky, Edvard. Stalin (Knopf Doubleday: 2011).
Williams, Peter and David Wallace. Unit 731 (Grafton Books: 1989).
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