Figure 1.--Most Lithuanian Jews went to separate Jewish schools which were mosdtly taught in Hebrew even though most Jews spoke in Yiddish. This meant that the children had to learn at least three languages (Yiddish, Hebrew, and Lithuanian). I'm not sure just why most Jewish children were sent to separate Jewish schools. Here is a Jewish primary school in 1921. Notice that many of the boys wear a kind f military uniform. This may be a artifact of the former Russian school system rather than a uniform required by the school itself.
Jews appeared in Lithuania during the late medieval era. Jews are noted during the reign of Grand Duke Gedeyminus, who founded the first Lithuanian state (14th century). Historians note many thriving Jewish communities (late 15th century). Vilnius became the center of Jewish life in Lithuania. Lithuanian Jews developed a vibrant community with a destinct, highly developed culture. Many Lithuanian Jews spke a destinctive dialect of the Yiddish language. We note some separate Jewish schools. Although by the 20th century, Lithuania was only a small Baltic country, the country's Jewish community was one of the most notable in Europe. Some like rabbi Israel Meir Lau, the Chief Rabbi of Israel, saw Lithuanian Jews as the "spiritual leaders of the entire Jewry”. There were many notable Jewish institutions in Lithuania: the Gaon of Vilnius, the famous Lithuanian yeshivas, the YIVO, the Romm publishers, the Strashun library, the Department of Semitic languages at the University of Vytautas the Great in Kaunas. Lithuanian Jews were involved in major schools of Jewish religious thought as well as secular movements like the Jewish workers' movement and Zionism. I am unsure to what extent the Jewish population in Lithuania had assimilated into the larger Lithuanian population. I think that a substantial part of the population lived as a separate community. The country had a pre-World War II population of 0.2 million. One source estimates the Lithuanian Jewish population at about 160,000 people, about 7 percent of the country's total population. After the NAZI and Soviet invasions of Poland (September 1939), refugees fled into still independent Lithuania. The Soviet Union also transferred Vilinus, which Poland had seized in 1938, back to LituniaThia. Lithuania's Jewish population thus swelled the Jewish population to about 240,000 people. Much of Lithuania's Jewish population was concentrated in Vilnius. The city was known as the Jerusalem of the North or the Jerusalem of Diaspora. Jews all over Europe adminred the city's Yiddish-language theaters, libraries, schools and its Talmudic scholars. Jewish Lithuanians referred to themselves as "Litwakes. Abraham Mapu, Abraham Sutzkever, and Eisik Meir Dick were noted Jewish authors. There were also artists and musiscians. Violinist Jascha Heifetz and artist Mark Chagall were among the most famous.
Medieval Lithuania
Lithuania was a medieval grand duchy ( -1385), a grand principality of Poland (1385-1795), a part of the Russian Empire (1795-1918), an independent republic (1918-40), a republic of the Soviet Union (1940-1991), and finally an independent republic again (1991- ). Linguistic work suggests that the Lithuanians may have first appeared on the basin of the upper Dnipper River. Archeological work suggests that the Lituanians arrived in the baltic about 2500 BC. The first known historical reference to Baltic peoples is by the Roman historian Tacitus in his work Germania (1st century AD). The first specific mention of Lithuanians occurs in a medieval Prussian manuscript--the Quedlinburg Chronicle (1009). Medieval lords in Prussia and Russia began to pressure the Baltics. A loose federation of Lituanian tribes emerged as a defensive measure. The Lithuanians more effectively resisted the Teutonic Knights than other Baltic tribes (13th century). The Teutonic knights were attempting to Christanize the Baltic tribes and to seize their land making them feudal vassals. Mindaugas forged a loose federation of the still largely pagan Lithuanian tribes (1251). He was crowned king, the only Lithuanian ever to achieve that status. Mindaugas defeated the Teutinic Knights in a major battle (1260). The Jagellons, a dynasty of Lithuanian grand dukes forged an enormous empire streaching from the Black Sea to the Baltic. The Empire was begun by Gediminas ( -1340) and expanded by his sons, Olgierd ( -1377) and Keitutas. Olgierd's son Jagello assasinated his uncle and became the reigning duke. Jagello married Polish Queen Jadwiga and accepted Roman Catholocism (1386). Gramd Duke Witold (Vytautas the Great) revolted against the Jagello (1390). He created a huge state by conquest one of the largest states in Europe (1400). The Lithuanians gained a crushing military victory against the Teutonic Knights at the Battle of Tannenberg (1410). Casimir IV, Jangello's son, negotiated an alliance with lithuania. Alexander I who succeeded as Polish king in 1501 gave the two countries a single ruler. It was agreed at Lublin to have an elected king and a common legislature (1569). It was at this time that Poland becan to experience increasing military pressure from the Grand Dukes of Moscow--the predecessors of the Tsars.
Eastern European Jews
There were in the ealy medieval period few Jews in Eastern Europe. Jews were primarly found in the countries that developed from the Roman Empire, largely the countries of Western Europe and the countries to the east and south of Palestine to which just fled during the Diaspora from the Roman supression of the Jews. Russia had few Jews and expelled or killed those it did have. Poland and Hungary just to its west, howver, had rapidly growing Jewish populations. Waves of anti-Jewish pogroms and expulsions from the countries of Western brgan with the Crusades (11th century). A sizable portion of the Jewish populations there moved to the more tolerant countries of Central and Eastern Europe, as well as the Middle East. Christian represion of the Jews turned increasingly severe (11yh century). Mass pogroms occurred such as the Crusader campaign against Rhineland Jews. Jews thus began fleeing east. This occurred even before Poland was Christianized, Polish ruler Casimir III, often called Casimir the Great, (1333-70) played a major role in creating modern Poland. He also played an important role in attracting Jewish settlers east. The offered them the opportunity to settle in Poland and many Jews took advantage of the offer. For Casimor this was a way of settling and developing his kingdom. Poland at the time controlled large areas of Central and Eastern Europe. Casimor essentially made the Jews a third estate. They brough useful skills, both artisan skills and commercialservices in a his largely agricultural society. One historian estimates that as many as 85 percent of the Jews in Poland were involved in aarrow range of occupations, including estate management, tax and toll collecting, moneylending or trade (14th century). The Jews settled in both Poland and Hungary. From there Jews spread into the thinly lightly populated areas of Ukraine and Lithuania.
Lituania-Poland
The Polish crown was inherited by Louis I of Hungary (1370). His daughter Jadwiga who was only 10-years old inherited the Polish throne (1382). She married Duke Jagiello of Lithuania (1386). This created an alliance with pagan Lithuania. Jagiello converted to Christianity and becomes Wladyslaw II Jagiello, ruling from (1386-1434). The union created an alliance with Lithuania that endured for 400 years. This association with Poland is why Lithuania acquired the largest Jewish population of the various Baltic countries.
Alexander the Jagiellonian expelled the Jews from Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1495), but after only a few years reversed his decision (1503).
Early Jewish History
Jews appeared in Lithuania during the late medieval era. Jews are noted during the reign of Grand Duke Gedeyminus, who founded the first Lithuanian state (14th century). Historians note many thriving Jewish communities (late 15th century). Vilnius became the center of Jewish life in Lithuania.
The shtetl over 800 years of Jewish life in Eastern Europe (Poland, Lithuania, and Russia) became the economic foundation. Shtetls began appearing first in Poland (11th century). The "Shtetl" was a small Jewish market town. Shetle is the Yiddish diminutive of shtot or stadt, the Yiddish and German words for "town." The typical shtetl was a town of from 1,000 to 20,000 people. Shtetls began appearing as Jewish fleeing increasing opression in Western Europe began fleeing East. Some of the first Jews were from Germany and Bohemia. There were also Mideastern Jews as well. There were eventually thousands of shtetlekh and they served as trading centers for the surrounding rural areas. The great majority of Eastern Eurioean Jews lived in the various Shtetls which became the primary institution of Jewish cultural life. The shtetls were populated almost entirely by Jews. There were also middle-sized towns where Jews constituted an important part of the population, The Jewish communities traditionally governed themselves according to halakha. They were controlled by the privileges granted them by local rulers. Jews in the shtetl were thus not assimilated into the larger eastern European societies.
Jewish Culture
Lithuanian Jews known as Litvish or Litvaks developed a vibrant community with a destinct, highly developed culture. As in Poland, it was largely based on shtetl life. Many Lithuanian Jews spoke a destinctive dialect of the Yiddish language. Lithuanian Jews are mostly Ashkenazi Jews, meaning Jews descended from the Jewsish communities in Germany and Eastern Europe. They were also Mitnagdim meaning opposed to Hasidism. Religiously during the medieval era they were mostly Haredi Jews, but during the 17th century Enlightenment, Lituanian Jews were strongly influenced by Haskala movement that developed in Eastern Europe. Although by the 20th century, Lithuania was only a small Baltic country, the country's Jewish community was one of the most notable in Europe. Some like rabbi Israel Meir Lau, the Chief Rabbi of Israel, saw Lithuanian Jews as the "spiritual leaders of the entire Jewry”. There were many notable Jewish institutions in Lithuania: the Gaon of Vilnius, the famous Lithuanian yeshivas, the YIVO, the Romm publishers, the Strashun library, the Department of Semitic languages at the University of Vytautas the Great in Kaunas. Lithuanian Jews were involved in major schools of Jewish religious thought as well as secular movements like the Jewish workers' movement and Zionism.
Tsarist Russia
Poland in the medieval period was one of the most powerful European states, controlling a huge area of eastern and central Europe. The Poles agreed at Lublin to have an elected king and a common Lithuanian-Polish legislature (1569). It was at this time that Poland becan to experience increasing military pressure Grand Dukes of Moscow--the predecessors of the Tsars. The elected monarchy which the Polish nobiklity demanded proved to have been a terrible mistake. It weakened Polabd's ability to compete with the developing Tsarist regime in Russia. Poland's inability to compete with powerful neighbors resulted in partition (1772, 1793, and 1795). As a result both Lithuania and Polnd became part of the Tsarist Empire. During and after the Napoleonic Wars there were nationalist insurrections (1812, 1831, 1863, and 1905).
Jews in the Tsarist Empire
I have little information specifically about Lithuanian Jews in Tsarist Russia. With the acquisition of Poland, Tsarist Russia had to develop new policies toward Jews because they made up such a substantial part of the population. The Tsarist answer was the Pale of Settlement which restricted Jres from moving from the Pale to Russia proper. The Pale was created by Catherine the Great (1791) and grradually enlarged. It eventially extended from Poland south to the Crimea. Jews in Lithuania were thus affected by a range of Tsarist decrees affecting their movement, occupation, ownership of land, education and other matters. Tsarist policies varied. Some such as opening public schools to Jews expanded opportunities. Other policies such as forbidding Jews to live in certain towns restricted Jews. The overall policy was to promote assimilstion and conversion. Gradually Tsarist policies became more harsh. This appears to have been the result of rebellions and revolts which Tsarist officiald blamed in part on Jews. The Decembrist Revolt (1825) shook the Tsarist regime which turned increasingly repressive. The Russian intelligentsia frustrated by Tsarist absolutism turned to a range of alternatives, including nihilism, narchism, liberalism, socialism, syndicalism, and finally Bolshevism (Communism). Of course because of Tsarist repression, many Jews turned to these varied movements. Tsarist officials unwilling to yield power through lineral reforms, instead promoted religious and nationalistic fanaticism to bolster the regime. As a result, Tsarist officials supressing these different movemnts gave special attention to the Jews as ell as other national minorities. Alexander II, the "Tsar liberator" who abolished serfdom (1861) also persued Russification polices designed to suppress national minorities. Alexander prohibited Jews from hiring Christian servants and ownning land. He also restricted travel. He approved a policy promoted by Polish politician Alexander Wielopolski in the Kingdom of Poland that gave Jews equal rights. The situation got much worse for Jews in the Tsarist Empire after the Assination Alexander II. His reactionary son who became Alexander III expanded the Russification program and in particular the repression of Jews. He adopted the historic motto "Autocracy, Orthodoxy, and Nationalism." In order to build his personal popularity, he gave his support to "folk antisemitism" which included age-old myths such as the ews as "Christ-killers" and the oppressors of the Slavic, Christian victims. A terrifying wave of pogroms swept Russia, but more in the south than the Baltics (1881).
The new Tsar not only failed to intervene in force to protect the Jewish victims, but blamed the pogroms and riots on the Jews. He issued the so-called Temporary Regulations ("Временные правила") that remained in effect for over 30 years and came to be called the May Laws because of when they were issued (May 15, 1882).
The Chief Procurator of the Holy Synod was Konstantin Pobedonostsev who was a close associate and mentor of the Tsar. He saw the goal of the Tsar's policies was to force one-third of Russia's Jews to emigrate, one-third to accept baptism, and one-third to starve. [Chorbajian, p. 237] Tsarist officials created a web of restrictions on Jewish life and constantly refined the specific provisions. The pogroms did not end in 1881, but there were several waves of pogroms extending into the 20th century.
Most historians believe that Tsarist officials were involved to varying degrees in these pogtoms. As bad as the pogroms were during the Tsarist era, the worst pogroms occurred during the Civil war in the Ukraine by White forces.
Tsarist decrees took many forms. Jews were banned from rural areas and small towns (smaller than 10,000 people), evem inside the Pale. Education was a particular concern. Restrictions were intensified on Jews seeking to study in secondary schools and universities. The quota was reduced to 10 percent within and 5 percent outside the Pale (1887). The quota in Moscow and St. Petersburg was 3 percent.
Other decrees prohibited Jews from persuing specific professions.
Jews were expelled from various cities: Kiev (1886) and Moscow (1891). A few exceptions were made in Moscow for Jews seen as especially useful.
Tsarist decrees also affected voting. While there was no national Duma (legislature) until 1905, there were local elections. A Tsarist decree prohibited the Jews from voting (1892). This included communities in which Jews consitutured the majority.
Thousands of Jews in the Tsarist Empire emifrated and this included Lithuania. The destination varied, but by far the major destination was the United States.
Independent Lithuania (1918-40)
The German Army achieved major victories on the Eastern Front during World War I and occupied Lithiania. In the disorders following World War I and the Russian Revolution, Lithuania declared independence (February 1918), but was forced to engage the Germans, Poles, and Russians (Bolsheviks). The Poles captured and held Vilnus. A League of Nations plebecite confirmed Polish possession of Vilnus, but Lithuania did not drop its claim. Relations with Poland were not established until 1938. I am unsure to what extent the Jewish population in Lithuania had assimilated into the larger Lithuanian population. It appears that a substantial part of the population lived as a separate community, reflected by the common use of Yidish and the large proportion of children enrolled in Jewish schools. We note separate Jewish schools. While Lithuanian Jews spoke a dialect of Yiddish and most Jewish newspapers were published in Yiddish, about 80 percent if the Jewish schools used Hebrew as the language of instruction. One source estimates that some 110 to 130 Jewish primary schools functioned in Lithuania. About 85% of the approximately 16,000 Jewish children attended these Jewish schools. Only about 15 percent attended Lithuanian schools. There were 22-26 secondary schools, almost all of which taught in Hebrew. [Lempertas] We are unsure to what extent Jewish parents chose Jewish schools because they wanted a Jewish education for their children or to what extent they believed their children would not be welcomed in Lithuanian schools. Jews were initially a substantial portion of university students One source estimates that about 25 percent of unuversity students were Jewish in the 1920s. With the advent of Hitler in Germany and rising anti-Semitism in Lithuania the proportion of Jewish university students fell to about 10 percent in the 1930s. [Lempertas]
The country had a pre-World War II population of about 0.2 million Jews. One source estimates the Lithuanian Jewish population at about 160,000 people, about 7 percent of the country's total population. After the NAZI and Soviet invasions of Poland (September 1939), refugees fled into still independent Lithuania. The Soviet Union also transferred Vilinus, which Poland had seized in 1938, back to LituniaThia. Lithuania's Jewish population thus swelled the Jewish population to about 240,000 people. Much of Lithuania's Jewish population was concentrated in Vilnius. The city was known as the Jerusalem of the North or the Jerusalem of Diaspora. Jews all over Europe adminred the city's Yiddish-language theaters, libraries, schools and its Talmudic scholars. Jewish Lithuanians referred to themselves as "Litwakes. Abraham Mapu, Abraham Sutzkever, and Eisik Meir Dick were noted Jewish authors. There were also artists and musiscians. Violinist Jascha Heifetz and artist Mark Chagall were among the most famous.
Anti-Semitism
We have only limited information about the historic roots of anti-Semitism in Lithuania. Here the Roman Catholic Church played a major role. Jews had suffered durin Tsarist rule. There seems to have been an era of relatively benign treatment of Jews during the early years of the Lithuanian republic. There were some relatively limited anti-Semetic incidents in the 1920s. These incidents were condemned by some prominent Lithuanians. The Government fter the coup of 1926 fired Jews from the civil service. The rise of the NAZIs and Hitler's seizure of power in Germany (1933) further emboldened anti-Semites in Lithuania. The number of Jews attending universities was restricted. Students stahed anti-Semetic demonstrations. Lithuanian tradesmen organized anti-Semitic boycotts. The slogan "Lithuania for Lithuanians" began to be used. The newspaper "Verslas" ("The Business") published vicious anti-Semetic artikes. President A. Smetona denounced anti-Semitism, but not all officials shared his views. [Lempertas] The gfact that Lithuanian Jews were not well integrated made them very vulnerable when the NAZIs arrived. Many Lithuanians were ardently Catholic which was another factor. I believe that anti-Semetic attitudes were intensified after the Soviet occupation because Jews were preceived as cooperationg with the Soviets. I am unsure at this tome to what extent this is true or was simply used to further inflame Lithuanian opinion.
Lithiania during World war II was in the unenviable position of being located between NAZI Germany and Soviet Russia. The country was a bone of contention between the NAZIs and Soviets as they discussed how to divide Eastern Europe. At first Lithuania was to be in the NAZI zone, but eventually Stalin got possession of the country. Apparently Hitler did not want to push the issue as he had decided to invade the Soviet Union anyway. Stalin desired to Russify Lithuania and began a program of deporting ethnuc Lithuanians. This program had only begun when the NAZIs invaded (June 1941). The Jews were the people targeted by the NAZIs. Mass mirder began from the moment the NAZIs crossed the Lithuanian frontier. As a resilt of the brief but brital Soviet occupation, there was considerable support for the NAZIs when they entered Lithuania. THe German invasion was so swift, that relatively little damage was done. After stunning victories in the East, the Red Army reached the bordrs of Lithuania (1944). Enormous damage was done as the Red Army frove west to Poland and Germany.
Lithuania after the NAZIS seized Memel (1939) was annexed by the Soviets (1940) under the terms of secret protocols in the NAZI-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact. Sempo Sugihara, the Japanese Consul in Kaunaus (the inter-war capital of Lithuania), issued over 1,600 transit visas to Jewsish refugees fleeing Poland, allowing them to transit the Soviet Union. The NAZIs occupied Lithuania in June 1941 in the opening phase of Operation Barbarossa--the invasion of the Soviet Union. The specialized killing units the Eizenstazgrupen were deployed with chilling effiency. Almost at the inception of NAZI occupation ther were mass executions of Jews. The first was the killing of about 1,000 Jews at Vilijampole (June 25-26, 1941). Lithuanian collaborators enthusiastically embraced NAZI anti-Semitic propaganda. The attempted to identify Jews with Communism and the attrocities committed by Stalin during the Soviet occupation (1940-41). Many insisted that undoing Soviet rule and Communism required liquidating Jews. They began the same process persued in Poland by the NAZIs. While the NAZIs were unavle to find collaborators in Polnd, they were able to do so in Lithusnia. The local authorities subjected the Jews to a series of repressive measure designed to humiliate them, marginalize them. steal their propery, and ultimately kill them. Those not likked immeiately after the NAZI invssion were hearded into gettos like those formed in Poland. Most of the country's 240,000 Jews were killed. This was 90-95v percent, the highest mortality rate in NAZI occupied Europe.
Sources
Chorbajian, Levon. Studies in Comparative Genocide p.237.
Lempertas, Izraelis, et. al. "Jews in Lithuania". Internet cite accessed August 30, 2005.
