Figure 1.--Slavery was abolished in the new independent Latin American republics. It continued for decades in the Brazilian Empire. This painting depicted a scene below deck of a slave ship headed to Brazil in the 1920s. It was an illustration on Johann Moritz Rugendas' book 'Voyage Pittoresque dans le Bresil', published in Paris (1835). This was a color painting, but published in black and white. It seems to be a reasonably accurate depiction, although we do not know if Rugendas' anti-slavery views affected the depiction.

The diplomatic landscape changed during and after the Napoleonic Wars. Many new independent nations appeared in Latin America as a result of the Napoleonic Wars and aftermath. The Latin American Wars of Liberation (1806-26) resulted in independence for on country in the region after another. This changied the diplomatic landscape in the Americas. Britain also had the advantage in these countries that it was the Royal Navy which prevented the Congrss of Vienna after the Napoleonic Wars from attempting to restore the old monarchial order in the Ammericas. Britain was also an important trading partner. Thus in country after country, the slave trade was ended and slavery abolished in a complicated series of steps. The Latin Americans signed traties with Britain to end the slave trade. Abolition and emancipated followed. The one hold out of importance was Brazil which did not fight a war of independence and and did not establish a republic. Ending the slave trade necesitated a diplomatic effort with these new strates rather than Portugal and Spain. to obtain the cooperation of these new countries. The Latin American wars of independence combined with British diplomacy resulted in considerable progress toward ending the slave trade. Slavery was fairly limited in most of these countries, except for Brazil and the Caribbean. The South American countries except for Brazil and the Guinas became independent republics. The Caribbean islands, except for Haiti, remained in European hands. The republican orientation of these new governments set the conditions for freeing slaves. The most important country here was Brazil with a substantial-slave based economy and the only country in South America the region to estanlish a monarchy. This complicated the diplomatic effort creating many new jurisdictions that had to be dealt with, The South American countries did not possess many vessels that participted in the slave trade, but they cooperated to various degrees with the slavers--espeially Brazil. The large market for slaves in Brazil and the short run from Africa to Brazilin ports made interdiction difficult. Cuba was also important, but remained in Spanish hands. Many of the Spanish South American countries were on the Pacific coast, making the slave trade a much more complicated operation. There were several reasons that abolition relatively quickly followed aolition. First, except for Brazil and the Caribbean, most of Latin America did not develop tropical plantations using African slaves. This was a relatively easy process. The Spanish colonial system converted Native Americans into peasant serfs. Second, slave owners tended to oppose independence and thus the revolutionaries could recruit slaves. And after the victory of the revolutuonaries there was no longer any one supporting slavery. Third, the revolutionary leaders were embued with the ideals of tge Enlitement and tended to oppose slavery for ethical reasons. [Strk, 220.] As a result abolition and emancipation began even while the Wars for Independence were underwa and were accomplished well before the defeat of the merican Confederacy. Most of the rest of South America qyuickly abolished slavery after indepnndence: Argentina (1813), Colombia (1914), Chile (1823), Mexico (1829), and Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela (1850s).

Slavery in Colonial Latin America

Latin America was primnary colonized by two countries, Portugal and Spain. These two imperial powers pursued different policies concerning slavery. The difference was due to both geography and climate. Portugal which coonized the coast of Brazil prived unable to succesfully enslave Native Americans as they fled into the vast Amazonian interior. Thus they turned to African slaves who came from areas with similar climates. Slaves became central to the economy og colonial Brazil. The Spanish who colonized the Andean spine of South America first devestated the Mative american population in the Caribben. In the Andes, however, Native Americans survived and the Spanish turned them into camesinos, esentially feudal serfs. This was a condition near slavery. And African slaves did not do well in the Andean highlands. Only in the coastal areas with tropical/semi-tropical climates did slavery take hold. This included the Caribbean where the Spanish devetated the Native American population.

Spanish Colonies

Slavery was fairly limited in most of the Spanish colonies. There were some exceptions. The most important was Cuba. The Spanish had largely exterminated the Native American population in their Caribbean colonies. This primarily meant Cuba which was of enormous value because of the sugar industry. Generally the Spanish used the Native American population for labor. There were pockets in Spnish colonies where Africans were imported, including the Caribean coasts of Venezuela and Colombia. They were also imported in northern Ecuador (Esmeraldas). The reason that slavery was limited in Spanish colonies was in part geographic and climatic. African slaves did not do well in the high alditudes and cool weather of the Andes. This is why the enclaves where slavery flourished was in the Caribbean and tropica/semi tropical coastal areas. The other reason was that much of the population, especially the indio/indegina (Native American) population was kept in a state of near slavery--feudal bondage. They were tied to the land on large haciendas by thge encomienbda system. Thgey were like medieval European serfs. They were not slaves and had some limited rights, but their economic prspspects were significantly constrained. Thus hacienda owners had little motivation to acquire slaves. Thge Spanish colonial economy was based on exploitation, both of land and of Indian labor trough the ecomienda system. Spanish conquitadores and others with influence at court were were given title to land and ownership of the Native American villages on that land. In return they committed to convert the indios/indigenas to Christianity. Thus the Spanish receiving large land grants were permitted to use the land and Native American labor as they saw fit. This system developed into a system very similar to slavery. The Native ametricans were often not paid a monetary wage, but often a use of a small part of lnd variously described as a husipungo or other local term. In return they were required toperform backbreaking labor for the hacendado (havienda/plantation or mine owner). The Spanish justoified this exploitation by claiming that they were caring out their God-given duty was to convert the Ntive Americans to Christianity so they could achieve eternal salvation. This was seen as a awaed justifying any exploitation in this life. What were initilly abuses became so widespread that they evolved into the norm.

Portuguese colony: Brazil

Brazil had the largest slave population in the world, substantially larger than the United States. The Portuguese who settled Brazil needed labor to work the large estates and mines in their new Brazilian colony. They turned to slavery which became central to the colonial economy. It was particularly important in the mining and sugar cane sectors. Slavery was also the mainstay in the Caribbean islands with economies centered on sugar. Estimates suggest that about 35 percent of captured Africans involved in the Atlantic slave trade were transported to Brazil. Estimates suggest that more than 3 million Africans reached Brazil, although precise numbers do not exist. Brazil had begun to turn to slavery in the 15th century as explorers began moving along the coast of Africa. With the discovery of the Americas, the Portuguese attempted to enslave the Native American population as well. This did not prove successful. The Native Americans died in large numbers, both because of slave rading, mistreatment, and the lack of resistance to European diseases. The Portuguese found captured Africans to be a valuable trading commodity as Europeans began to settle the Caribbean islands. They also began transporting Africans to their Brazilian colony. Portuguese Prime Minister Marquês de Pombal abolished slavery in Portugal (February 12, 1761). The Portuguese action, however, did not address slavery in the colonies. Slavery was widely practiced. Brazilians of all classes owned slaves. Slaves were not only owned by upper and middle class Brazilians, but also by lower class Brazilians. There were even slaves who owned other slaves.

Latin American Wars of Liberation (1806-26)

The diplomatic landscape changed during and after the Napoleonic Wars. One after another, the South American countries became independent republics. The Caribbean islands, except for Haiti, remained in European hands. The most important country here was Brazil with a substanti-slave based economy. This complicated the diplomatic effort creating many new jurisdictions thstv hd to be dealt with, The South American countries did not possess many vessels that prticipted in the slave trade, but they cooperated to vay degrees with the slavers--espeially Brazil. The large market for slaves in Brazil and the short run from Africa to Brazilin ports made interdiction difficult. Cuba was also important, but remained in Spanish hands.

Congress of Vienna (1814-15)

The Congress of Vienna oversaw not only the redrawing of the European map, but made decessions affecting colonial possessions around the world. These involved the disposition of colonial possssions that had changed hands during the Napooleonic Wars, almost entirely possessions the British Royal Navy had seized. The Congress also condemned the slave trade. The Congress took no comcrete action to enforce the condemnation. The Great Powers except for Britain had no real stake in the slave trade which was primarily an Atlantic entrprise, at least as far as Europe was concered. It would fall upon Britain and the Royal Navy to end the slave trade. The Congress did not address the wars for independence against Spain rageing in South aznd Central America. I am not sure to whatt extent they were discussed, but any mention of them did not appear in the final agreement. Also not mentioned was the United States, a country Britain fought a war during the Napoleonic Wars (1812-15). This is somewhat curious because as a democratic republic, America was a chllenge to the monarchial conservative regime that the Congress was reimposing on Europe. I am not sure why the Congress took no decesions on America. Perhaps the delegates felt that Amrica was not very important. Or perhpas that republican government would ultimately fail. Or perhaps the British did not want the other Great Powers interfering. This is a topic we need to persue. After the Congress of Vienna, a kind of Congress System operated--a kind of collective security arrangement for European monarchs. The French intervened to supress liberal uprising in Spain. When the Congress System discussed restoring royal authority in the rebellious Spanish colonies, Britain objected. Only Britain among the Comgress Powers had a substantial naval force. It was needed if Spain was to reasert its authority. The British had no particular smpathy toward South American revolutionaries. They did see trade advantages, however, in braking up the Spanish Empire. Spain had attempted to prevent the colonies from trading with Britain. Thus Britain persued the trade advantages rather than supporting the Congress powers desiring to supress the new republics and restore Spanish royal rule.

British Diplomacy

Many new indepependent nations appeared in Latin America as a result of the Napoleonic Wars and aftermath. Ending the slave trade necesitated a diplomaric effort to obtain the cooperation of these new countries. The Latin American wars of independence combined with British diplomacy resulted in considerable progreass toward ending the slave trade. Britain also had the advantage in these countries that it was the Royal Navy which prevented the Congrss of Vienna after the Napoleonic Wars from attempting to restore the old monarchial order in the Ammericas. Britain was also an important trading partner.

Indios and Campesinos

With the revolutions that created independent repunlics in Latin America or an independent monarchy in in Brazil, the economies and social struture changed very little from the colonial era. Slavery was of marginal imprtance in the new republics that were firmned from the Spaish Empire. As a result, the abolition of slavery was an easy step with few social consequences. Spain held on to Cuba and Pueto Rico where slavery was important. And Brazil where slavey was also important continued slavery as an institution that was central to the economy. What did not change in the former Spanish colonies was the hacienda system. Land ownrship continued to be concentrated in a few families and the Native Americans continued to be ties to the land by law or social custom as was established by the encomienda system furing th colonial period. While the new Republics waxed eloquently about freedom and ending slavery, they actually did next to nothing to rectify the inequities under which a large part of the population labored. At the time there were two two groups of laborers in rural Latin America. First were the indios tied to the land. Second were the campesions, although the word is of relatively recent origins. (appearing in Cuba during the Spanish American War--1898). Campesino means a person living in the countryside (campo). The connotation is, however, a small-scale farmer or farm laborer. Spanish land grants were not all huge land grants. There were also small grants to Spanish foot soldiers and settlers. In many cases some of the original grant was sold to meet debts. Some Spanish families lost all their land, becoming rural workers. Thus in addition to the indios, there were small individuals of Spanish origins in the country side. And between these two groups were mestizos, people of mixed marriages. It should not be thought that these were racial groups in the European sense. Commonly indios and mestizos who dressed like the Spanish and poke Spanish were no longer considered indios. They wetre also very poor, but not tied to the land. Over time these two groups began to merge. And common usage in much of Latin America is to use 'campesino' for the rural poor, including individuals of Native American or mixed origins. And into the modern area, families living in the country side tend to have small plots or no land at all and lived in great poverty. Unlike the cities there were few alternative job opportunities. [Feder] Thus Latin American development plans commonly include land reform. And in recent years a Camesino Movement has devloped to advocate for rural people. Some Native American use the term campesino.

Individual Latin American Countries

The republican orientation of the new Latin American governments set the conditions for freeing slaves. Thus in country after country, slavery was abolished and treaties were signed with Britain to end the slave trade. The one hold out of importance was Brazil which did not fight a war of independence and and did not establish a republic. The South American countries except for Brazil and the Guinas became independent republics. The Caribbean islands, except for Haiti, remained in European hands. The diplomatic landscape changed during and after the Napoleonic Wars. The Latin American Wars of Liberation (1806-26) resulted in independence for on country in the region after another. The South American countries except for Brazil and the Guinasa became independent republics. The Caribbean islands, except for Haiti, remained in European hands. The most important country here was Brazil with a substantial-slave based economy. This complicated the diplomatic effort creating many new jurisdictions that had to be dealt with, The South American countries did not possess many vessels that participted in the slave trade, but they cooperated to various degrees with the slavers--espeially Brazil. The large market for slaves in Brazil and the short run from Africa to Brazilin ports made interdiction difficult. Cuba was also important, but remained in Spanish hands. Many of the Spanish South American countries were on the Pacific coast, making the slave trade a much more complicated operation. There were several reasons that abolition relatively quickly followed aolition. First, except for Brazil and the Caribbean, most of Latin America did not develop tropical plantations using African slaves. This was a relatively easy process. The Spanish colonial system converted Native Americans into peasant serfs. Second, slave owners tended to oppose independence and thus the revolutionaries could recruit slaves. And after the victory of the revolutuonaries there was no longer any one supporting slavery. Third, the revolutionary leaders were embued with the ideals of tge Enlitement and tended to oppose slavery for ethical reasons. [Strk, 220.] As a result abolition and emancipation began even while the Wars for Independence were underwa and were accomplished well before the defeat of the merican Confederacy. Most of the rest of South America qyuickly abolished slavery after indepnndence: Argentina (1813), Colombia (1814), Chile (1823), Mexico (1829), and Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela (1850s).

Haiti (1791)

Haiti was the second independent republic in the Americas and the first to abolish slavery. Independence came with the French Revolution as a result of a slave rebellion. This was before the major Latin America Wars of Liberation. The resulting Independence War was a bloody one (1791-1804). Haiti was thus the first Ameican country to abolish slavery. After achieving its independence, however, the United States and European countries horrified at the idea of a slave rebellion as well as dealing with black officials, essentially ostracized Haiti. Haiti signed a treaty with Britain and France agreeing to the terms of the previous treaties between the (1831 and 1833).

Argentina (1813)

Argentina abolished skavery (1813). Argentina did not have alarge slave population. Argentina declared the American slave trade an act of piracy (1824). Argentina and Columbia signed a Treaty with Britain committing to the total abolition of the slave trade and forbidding it in its own dominions (1825). The Argentine Confederation and Uruguay signed treaty with Britain with the same provisions as the 1835 Treaty with Spain (1839). Charles Darwin aboard the HMS Beagle did not find slaves in rgentina. He was horified at the ongoing genocide directed at Native Americans. [Darwin]

Colombia/Nuevo Granada (1814)

New Granada began to move against the slave trade (1814). New Grenada prohibited the import and export of slaves (1847). Venezuela acted again to prohibit the importation of slaves (1848). New Grenada signed a treaty with Britain to supress the slave trade and abolished slavery (1851).

Chile (1823)

Chile began to move against the slave trade (1823). Chile and Venezuela signed treaties with Britain, conceding the Right of Search, the establishment of Mixed Commissions, authorising the condemnation of vessels equipped for the slave trade, and declaring that liberated slaves are to be given over to the government whose vessels seized a slaver. Chile declaring the slave trade to be an act of piracy (1842).

Mexico (1826)

Mexico signed a Treaty with Britain committing to the abolition of the slave trade and forbidding it in its own dominions (1826). Mexico signed a treaty with Britain declaring the slave trade an act of piracy, conceding a Right of Search, authorising that vessels equipped for the slave trade should be condemned and broken up before sale, and declaring that liberated slaves would be given over to the government whose vessels seized them (1841). Mexico declared slave trading to be an act of piracy (1851).

Brazil (1829)

Brazil had the largest number of slaves in South Americ. And unlike the Spanish coonies did not move towad abolition after independence. Brazil did, howeve, begin to cooperate with the British in ending the African slave trade. Brazil signed a treaty with Britain to abolish its slave trade in 3 years (1826). Before the treaty came into force, Brazil committed to following the terms of the 1817 Treaty between Portugal and Britain. Brazil decides move forcefully against those engaged in the slave trade by assessing fines and inflicting corporal punishment. They also declared that slave trading vessels arriving in Brazil would be confiscated (1831). Brazil ordered ships to be searched on their arrival at Rio to enforce the 1831 Decree (1832). Charles Daewin was horrified at what he saw when the HMS Beagle stopped Braziliab ports. [Darwin]

Bolivia (1837)

Bolivia which at the time had a Pacific coastlie, signed a treaty with Britain to cooperate in the abolition of the slave trade and prohibiting its citizens from engaging in the trade (1837). Bolivia signed a treaty with Britain with the same provisions as the 1835 Treaty with Spain (1840).

Bolivia made the slave trade an act of piracy (1845).

Venezuela (1845)

Venezuela prohibited the import of slaves and declared any slave reaching Venezuelan territories to be a free person (1845).

Peru (1851)

Peru and Brazil added articles to existing treaties outlawing the importation of negroes by land (1851).

Ecuador

Uruguay (1853)

Uruguay declared the slave trade to be an act of piracy (1853).

Sources

Darwin, Charles. Voyage of the Beagle (1839).

Feder, Ernest. "The campesinos' perspective in Latin America." THE CAMPESINOS' PERSPECTIVES IN LATIN AMERICA* ERNEST FEDER

Created: 5:53 PM 10/28/2008
Last updated: 1:00 AM 5/31/2015