Figure 1.--Here we see elementary school children in the 1940s. Their fathers had just returned home frpm World War II with no less an accomplishment than saving Western civilization. An important question is how history should be presented to children. When I began teaching I thought that American children got too large a dose of uncritical patriotism and sugar coated history. I now rather think that few American children leave school with a reasonable appreciation of the accomplishments of the American nation.

The United States was founded by English colonists (17th century). This firmly planted English culture and law on America. The principles of representative governmenr were even more instilled with the Ebglish Civil War cut off the American colonists from royal rule. America fought two wars with Btitain and for a time the British underpinnings of Americam life were obscured. America developed differently from Europe in large measure because of the Frontier which gave virtually every individual the opportunity to own property. This resulted in a very different class structure than in Europe. The American Republic was based on a government structure established by the Constitution (1789). It and a small number of amendments have proved to be a remarkly successful structure for addressing major issues in national life. The sole exception proved to be slsavey which was only resolved by a terrible Civil War (1861-65). America in the 19th century evolved from a largely agricultural to the world's most important industrial power. Bountiful natural resources, a foundation of English law, a free enterprise system, an effective public education system, and immigration combined to make America potentially the most powerful country in the world. America in the early 20th century was an exceptional country in that it was the only important Industrial power that had no military conscription and large army. England since the 16th century had played a role in maintaining the European ballance of power. Britain no longer had this capability by the 20th cebtury because of the rising power of Russia and Germany. The balance of power took on increasing importance in the 20th century because of the increasing spread of democracy and a desire for national self determinsation. This resulted in the appearance of many small European states without the ability to maintain their independence in the face of the massive resources which could be mobilized by Russia and Germany. The United States which had persued an isolationist policy during the 19th century finally entered world politics. The United States prevented authoritarian Imperial Germany from dominating the Contindent in World War I. Next America pervented totalitarian NAZI Germany from dominating the Continent in World war II. And then after the War prevented the totalitarian Soviet Union from dominating Western Europe. It was under the umbrella of American power that today even the smallest European state can enjoy its national identity and indeopendence in unprecsented security. Domestically America in the 20th century gradually implemented a series of progressiveand lineral reforms designed to widen the opportunity of all americans. The Civil Rights movement finally opened up opportunities for black Americans.

The 16th Century

American history is often seen as beginning with the estanlishment of the first small English colonies at Jamestown and Plymouth in the 17th century. It was developments in Europe during the 16th century that prepared the foundation. Since the fall of Rome, the center of Europe was the German Holy Roman Empire. Locked in internal dynastic and religious feuds, however, the Empire was unable to dominate Europe. In paricular France was a challenge. And the competition between France and Germany meant that it was the smaller, more isolated countries on the perifery of Europe that would play the dominant role in the setllement of the Americas. Here Spain and Portugal led the way and the huge quantities of gold and silver flowing into Spain helped make that country emensely powerful kn the 16th century. Thus it looked like they would dominate the colonization of north America as they had done in South America. Yet it would be a relatively small European country--the English that would play the dominate role in North America. The issue was settled by the stunnning English naval victory over the Spanish Armada (1588). The English victory not only preserved the country's independence, but also mean that Nort America would be developed on a very different basis than Hispano America. The first English attempt by Sir Walter Raleigh at Roanoke Island, however, failed (1588).

The 17th Century

The central issue in American history during the 17th century was what Europan power would control North America. At first the issue was contested between England an Spain, but in the early 17th century with the decline of Spanish seapower and the founding of English and French colonies, it developed primarily in a struggle between France and Britain. (The Act of Union between England and Scotland created Britain during the reign of King James, the monarch for which Jamestown was named.) At the time the Caribbean took on an enormous importance because of the huge profits to be had from sugar. And here labor had to be imported giving rise to the iniqutous slave trade. The struggle for North America was much more than a dynastic struggle. It was in the end to be a struggle between royal absolutism and representative government. The colonial experience in representative government went beyond even that of Britain itself. The open frontier created opportunities not available to most British people. The English Civil War ledft the American colonists largely to their own devices during the formative period of the principle colonies. The Spanish and French colonies remained firmly under royal control.

The 18th Century

The Great Awakening is sometimes glossed over in surveys of American history. It should not be. The Great Awakening was a key phenomenon in the making of the American character. Early colonial America were separate and very different colonies. The Great Awakening swept over each of the 13 English colonies. It was their first common American experience. The colonies evolved a democratic political structure and because of the Frontier, much more egalitarian than Britain itself. Britain and France fought what amounted to as aworld war in the 18th century. The French and Indisan War decided who would control of North America. The English colonists were a major factor in the British victory in North America. After the War Britain expected America to pay for the costs of Empire. Britain also attemoted to both limit the movement less and control economic development and trade. And ey attempted to curtail the perogatives of the colonial legislatures. The result was rebellion which astonishly resulted in an American victory and independence. The new American Republic not only achieved independence, but control of the contindnt as far west as the Mississippi. Early problems with national government led to a new Federal Constitution, one of the most remarkable documents in human history. The Constitution and subsequent Supreme Court decesions have provided the frame work for resolving every major national issue--with the exception of one. The framers of the Constitition could not address thecissue of slavery. To ensure ratification, a Bill of Rights was drafted. The Constitutin provided for the major institutions of government, except political parties which began to develop even before the Constitution was ratified.

The 19th Century

Two issues dominated America during the first half of the 19th century. Gradually Manifest Destiny gripped America and the creation of a continental power was made possible by first war in Europe (Napoleon decided to sell Louisiana) and than war in North America (the Mexican War). The second issue which dominated the first half of the 19th century was slavery. The Constitution and a small number of amendments proved to be a remarkly successful structure for addressing major issues in national life. The sole exception proved to be slsavey which was only resolved by a terrible Civil War (1861-65). America in the 19th century evolved from a largely agricultural to the world's most important industrial power. Bountiful natural resources, a foundation of English law, a free enterprise system, an effective public education system, and immigration combined to make America potentially the most powerful country in the world. Here historians differ on how they assess the second half of the century. Some stress the positive: the development of new industrial technologies, an expanding middle class, the creation of wealth, and the creation of opportunities for American and Europe's dispossed. Other historian focus on the negative: the concentration of wealth, child sand female labor, unfair and unsafe working condotions, and other social probelms. The social critics that describe working conditions in America are often quite accurate, although they often do not put their accounts in context. It is important to remember that a society's ability to address social problems is dependent on its ability to create wealth. Socialism in the 20th century has a mixed track record of distributing wealth and a failed ability to create wealth. While social conditions were intolerable for many, conditions in Europe were even worse. And the economic productivity created in the 19th century gave America not only the ability to address social problems in the 20th century, but to save Western Civilization from the totalitarian ideologies that arose in Europe during the 20th century.

The 20th Century

Some histoirians have called the 20th century the American Century. It was in the 20th century that America finally implememented the promise of its ideals to all its citizens and in the process saved Western civilization. America in the early 20th century was an exceptional country in that it was the only important Industrial power that had no military conscription and large army. Europe on the otherhabnd devoted vast spending to armaments. England since the 16th century had played a role in maintaining the European ballance of power. Britain no longer had this capability by the 20th century because of the rising power of Russia and Germany. The balance of power took on increasing importance in the 20th century because of the increasing spread of democractic ideals and a desire for national self determinsation. This resulted in the appearance of many small European states and restive ethnic groups without the ability to maintain or achieve their independence in the face of the massive resources which could be mobilized by Russia and Germany. The United States which had persued an isolationist policy during the 19th century finally entered world politics. The United States prevented authoritarian Imperial Germany from dominating the Contindent in World War I. Next America pervented totalitarian and genocidal NAZI Germany from dominating the Continent in World war II. And then after the War first prevented the totalitarian Soviet Union from dominating Western Europe and eventually helped to liberate Eastern Europe fro Soviet tutelage. It was under the umbrella of American power that today even the smallest European state can enjoy its national identity and independence in unprecsented security. Domestically America in the 20th century gradually implemented a series of progressiveand lineral reforms designed to widen the opportunity of all americans. The Civil Rights movement finally opened up opportunities for all AMericans, especially black Americans.

The 21st Century

The 21st century is not yet the reaml of historians, but still current events. Americans face quite a range of serious issues in the early 21st century, but there is not yet any emerging consensus on how to deal with the problems. Americans who had thought that with the end of the Cold War that they could again withdraw into a new isolationists were rudely shocked by the Islamic terrorist 9-11 Attack on the World Trade Center. Americans disagree as to the extent and character of the threat and how to address it. Americans also disagree as to dangers posed by Global Warming and how to deal with it. The domestic debate has focused on income debate and immigration.

Sources

Bailyn, Bernard. To Begin the World Anew: The Genius and Ambiguities of the American Founders (Knopf: 2002), 185p.

Kukla, Jon. A Wildrerness so Immense: The Louisana Purchase and the Destiny of America (Knopf, 2003), 430p.

Turner, Frederick Jackson. "The Significance of the Frontier in American History" (1893). Frederick Jackson Turner is pne of the most influential historians in American history. He presented a paper to a special meeting of the American Historical Association at the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, Illinois (1893). He discussed the importance of the frontier. It was arguably the most important discussion of American history.

Created: January 27, 2003
Last updated: 11:29 PM 6/30/2008