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Zionism continued in the early 20th century as a minority movement among European Jews. World War I (1914-18) changed the dynamic both for the Arabs and Jews. The War destroyed the Ottomon Empire, but left Psalestine now within the British Empire. The British had appealed to both the Arabs and Jews for support during the War. Britain tried to compromise and promote democratic institutions in Palestine. The Arabs resisted in part because of the secular nature of British instututions. The rise of NAZIism in Germany generated increasing support for Zionism among European Jews. The Holocaust convinced many Jews that they had to have a state that would protect them. Arab resentment of European imperialism generated considerable support for the NAZIs before and during World War II (1939-45), an intelectual commitment that still lingers in the Muslim world. After World War II, the United Nations partitioned Palestine and Arab irregulars launched attacks against Jews (1947). When the Isrealis declared independence the neigboring Arab states invaded (1948). Somehow the Isrealis without a professional military or heaby sarms managed to survive. The Arab states refused to accept Israel and financed by the Soviet Union built up large modern militaries as well as supported guerilla attacks against Israel. The Isrealis prevailed in a series of wars (1956, 1967, and 1973). In the process the Isrealis occupied the West Bank and Gaza Strip as well as the Golan Heights (Syria) and Sinani (Egypt). Egypt decided to make peace with Israel, but the other Arab states continued to refuse to recognize Israel. Egypt as part of the Camp Daid Accords retrieved the Sinai and recognized Israel (1978). Fatah guerilla terror continued attacks on Israel. Arab public opinion even in Egypt continued to be hostile to Israel. Fatah attacks resulted in an Isreali excursion into Lebanon (1982). The Palestinians finally agreed to make peace as part of the Oslo Peace Process (1993). This turned the West Bank and Gaza Strip over to the Palestinian Authority. Continuing Isrealis security concerns meant a continuing Isreali presence. The Isreli settlenents also were a continuing impediment to peace.
As pogroms raged in Russia, small numbers of European Jews came to the conclusion that Jews needed their own homeland where they could be masters of their own fate. And it was Palestine that they wanted for their homeland. It all seemed an unrealistic dream. Paestine was occupied by Arabs. Obly small numbers of Jews lived there and it was a privince of the Ottoman Empire. Small numbers of European Jews enthused with Zionism migrate to Palestine in the late 19th century. Most came from Eastern Europe where anti-Semitism was most pronounced. Jews began arriving in numbers during the 1880s. The vast majority of the Palestinian population at the time was Arab. Palestine at the time was part of the Ottoman Empire. Land registration in individual names was still a relatively recent development. Zionist purchased land in the name of the Jewish National Fund. This land was thus held in the name of the Jewish people and could never be sold back to Arabs. Like much about the conflict, there is controversy here. The Zionist claimed to have acquired arid land of little value and developed farming techniques to make the desert bloom.
The Jewish Legion was founded in 1917. It participated along with the British and the Arab Army in the liberation of Palestine. Its commander was Colonel John Henry Patterson. He was an ardent Zionist and commanded the battalion-strength Zion Mule Corps around which the Jewish Legion was built. The Zion Mule Corps served at Gallipoli (1915). The Jewish Legioin also played a role in World War II. It was used for security purposes before bveing deployed in Italy and seeing combat near the end of the campaign. They helped spirit survivirs of the Holocaust to Palestine. The Legion played an important role in the foundatiion of the Haganah which in turn was the foundatiuin of the Isreali Defense Foirce (IDF). Many JL membrs played major roles in the foundation of Israel.
The British fought two campaigns in the Middle East during World War I. One was fought with Indian troops in Mesoptamia and resulted in the creation of Iraq. The other was fought with British, Empire (largely Australian), and T.H. Lawrence and King Feisel's Arab Army--an irregular force. The British in this campaign seized Palestine, Syria, and Lebanon from the Turks. The British after the War administered Palestine as a League of Nations Mandate.
Sir Mark Sykes and Charles Picot during World War I negotiated the Sykes-Picot Agreement. This set out the British-French colonial spheres in the Middle East.
British Foreign Secretary Arthur James Balfour committd Britain to establishing a Jewish homeland in Palestine (November 2, 1917). This is known as the Balfoyr Declaration. At the time the British offensive in Palestine was moving toward Jerusalem. Balfour's statement was included in a letter to Lionel Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron of Rothschild, of the Jewish banking family. Rothchild was an important British Jewish leader and played arole in financing the British war effort. Two important Zionist leaders (Chaim Weizmann and Nahum Sokolow) were seeking
British support for aJewish homeland, particularly important as it became increasingly clear that the British were goig to end Ottomon frule of Palestine. The British were hedging their bets as they also wanted rab support. The Balfour declaration was carefully worded. It was not a commitment for a Jewish state. It was, however, a substantial commitment from the country that was about to seize Palestine.
The Koran is the fundamental foundation of Muslim society. Thus we need to look at what the Koran says about Jews to fully understand modern attitudes. It is useful to look at Arab attitudes toward the Jews bot in historical times and in the modern era (19th and early 20th century) before the conflict in Palestine became pronounced. One important aspect to bear in mind is that the Jews since the Islamic era (7th century) have been a small minority in Aran countries without political power. The Arabs thus for centuries were the dominant power and even after conquest by the Ottoimans, the Islamic religion was dominant. Thus while there was a varying spirit of toleration, there was no traditin in the Arab world of accepting Jews on a basis of equality, either morally or before the law. Until World War I, most of the Aab world was a colonial dependency or protectorate of either the Ottoman or different European powers. It is useful to look at what Arab political or religious leaders had to say about the Jews as well as what Jews had to say about the Arabs.
The Mufti Haj Amin al Husseini and his associate Aref el Aref help agitate Palestian Arbs to riot, attacking Jews in Palestine. This was in many ways an attempt at an old-fashioned pogrom.
The problem for the Grand Mufti was that he did not control the strate. Police and military forces were in British hands and the Jews who were not well armed fought back. This was the first time that Palestinian Arabs encountered organized resistance. One of the slogans shouted by the Arab mobs was "Filastin hi arduna, Wa al-Yahud kilabuna" (Palestine is our land, and the Jews are our dogs).
The British at the end of World War I seized Aran-populated countries frim the Ottoman Empire. The British seized Palestine abd advanced to Damascas. A second offensive in Mesoptamia seized what was to become Iraq. Britain and France after World War I divided up the Arab lands seized from the Ottoman Empire at the Cairo Conference. The division followed the lines of the Sykes-Picot Treaty. The British created Trans Jordan under Emir Abdullah and installed King Faisal in Iraq. Syria was placed under French control. The British and French also endorsed the Balfour Declaration. The League of Nations approved the British Mandate of Palestine (July 7, 1922),
After World War II, Feisal who would become King of first Syria and then Iraq, proposed to the Zionist leader Chaim Weizman, a mutual partnership in developing a Jewish homeland in Palestine. Arabs leaders subsequently rejected this understanding, clasiming that the Allies had not met their commitment to the Feisal's father Sherif Hussein. Arabs mobs conducted the first major anti-Jewish riots in Palestine (1920). The British introduced Western legal concepts to Palestine. One of the actions taken was abolishing “dhimmitude”.Under this system, non-Muslim dhimmis lived in a system of institutionalised subgegation. Political rights were denied to all but Muslims. Changing this system was a major concern of Palestianiansand other Arabs. As the number of Zionist immigrants increased and the area of land expanded, conflicts began to develop with the Arabs. Here
Haj Amin el-Husseini, the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, played a central role. Both sides blame the other as scattered acts of viloence occurred. There were more Arabs attacks on Jewish settlements than Jewish attacks, but there were viloence perpetrated by both sides. The worst attack occurred at Hebron where Arabs massacred 69 Jews (1929). With Jews being murdered by Arabs, David Ben-Guruon organized the Hagana--the Jewish Defense Force. The Hagana began military training in secret. The British tried to defuse the situation, arresting both Arabbs and Jews and confiscating weapons. Jews claimed that because of the importance of the Arabs in British colonial policy, that the British generally favored the Arabs. Here we are not sure, but it is a topic we need to persue. Even a neutral polic, however, favored the Arabs. Palestine was suronded by Arab states or colonies to become Arab states. Thus if the Jews in Paestine had no weapons they would be defenless if the neighboring Arab states invaded. The "Arab Revolt" led by the Grand Mufti targetted both the British and the Jews (1936-39).
One poorly persued topic is the Palestinian economy and the impact of the influx of Jewish settlers to Palestine. Anti-Jewish sentiment among the Arabs existed before the Zionist settlement. There is not doubt that the influx gave rise to increased anti-Jewish sentiment. This is a normal reaction in any country, just as the Irish immigration in America gave rise to anti-Irish sentiment. Into this volitile mix the Grand-Mufti of Palestine promoted violence against the Jews. This dynamic has been fairly well documented. Less well addressed in the economic condition of the Palestinians and the impact of the Jewish Zionist immigration. Palestinans commonly complain that the Jews purchased land from poor Paestinians. The objection here is that the resulting land was lost to the Palestinian community. Palestinian poverty was of course something the Jews did not create or the West. It was a fact when the Britishtook Palestine (1918). It was the result of Ottomon and Arab backwardness and the failure to enter the modern world. We have seen reports that the economic impact of the Jewish immigration was to stimulate the Palestinian economy and the Palestinians thus benefitted economically from the growth in the econonmy. One authot maintains that not only did the Palestinian economy grow more rapidly than was the case during the Ottoman Era, but it grew more rapidly than was the case for neigboring Arab-populated areas like Lebanon, Syria, anJorsdan, and Egypt. Our information on this is still limited. We do know that the Arab population increased, one indicator of a thriving economy. We are not sure, however, of this was the result of a rising birthrate or immigration from neigboring Arab states. This is another topic we hope to persue.
The British Peel Commission following on the Arab riots suggested spliting Palestine into a Jewish and Arab state (1937).
The Jewish area would have about 25 percent of the land. At the time there were about 450,000 Jews in Palestine. The British believed that the much larger and more populous Arab state would not be economically self-sufficient. Thus the British saw a need for te Jewish state to support the Arab state. The Commission was important because it was the first official recognition of partition as a sollution. Most peace outlines since have adopted partition as the sollution. There have been no other possible sollution offered. Obtaining agreement from the parties involved, however, has proven elusive.
NAZI diplomacy with its anti-British and anti-Semitic approached appealed to the Arabs. Here they met considerable sympathy both because of rising anti-Semitism and opposition to British colonialism. The British attempted to counter this by issuing a White Paper before the War began withdrrawing their support for a Jewish homeland. The German position in the Middle-East was strengthen with the fall of France (June 1940). Vichy France was recognized by authorities in French North Africa, Syria, and Lebanon. Palestenians religious figures openly courted Hitler and the NAZIs. The Grand Mufti fleeing arest in Palestine sought refuge in Iraqi where a colaborator, Rashid Ali, led a pro-Nazi coup in Iraq. Saddam's uncle was also involved. It failed. The Grand Mufti tied to do the same in Iran, but was forced to again flee with the Soviets and British intervened. Both the Grand Mufti and Rashid found refuge in Berlin. The Mufti received financial support from the NAZIs and made proaganda broadcasts. He also helped recruit Muslim SS Divisions in both Bosnia and Kosovo. The the NAZIs as under the cover of the war launched the Holocaust. The Grand Mufti incouraged NAZI leaders to kill more Jews. The NAZIs of course needed little encoracment. The Grand Mufti's propaganda broadcasts to the Arab world, however, had considerable political resonance. Future Arab leaders like Nasser and Sadat were among thoses impressed. Many Arabs, especially those in Egypt, Palestine, and Iraq hope for what they saw as liberation from NAZI armies in North Africa and Russia. And for a time in 1942 it look like Rommel in the Western Desert and the Paulis in the Ukrain might just deliver such a victory. The ironic aspect of this was Grand Mufti and the NAZI supporting Arabs seem to have been oblivious to the fact that the NAZIs saw Semetic people in geneeal as inferior and not just the Jews. And thus they would have been destimed to an infrior status in a NAZI controlled world. Nor do the seem to hasve understood that Hitler did not want to demolish the British Empire. His concept was to use the British to help control the "inferior" peoples outside Europe. British resistance forced Hitler to persue the War against Britain, but it was not his desire. He wanted the British as an ally. Actually the Axis had one Arab colony during the War--Libya. The brutality of the Italians in Libya might have given the Grand Mufti and other Arabs pause about an Axis victgory in the Mikddle East, but it never seems to have done so.
The NAZI Holocaust shatered Jewish society throughout Europe. Estimates vary, but the most commonly used estimate is that the NAZis and their colaborators murdered about 6 million Jews in Europe. Jewish communities and culture which had thrived for centuries were desimated. The Grand Mufti in Jerusalem before the War helped oraginze anti-Jewish riots and then aided a pro-NAZI coup in Iraq. When that failed he fled to Germany where he was hosted by the NAZIs. He made anti-Semetic broadcasts and urged his NAZI hosts to kill more Jews. He helped the NAZIs organize Muslim SS units in Bosnia and Kosovo. The historical basis of the Holocaust is well established. Curiously a variety of Muslim leaders have chosen to deny or claim that accounts are exagerated. The most prominant recent example is Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad who made a number of such statements in 2006. The question is why is this so common in the Muslim world. After all whether or not Hitler killed Jews has nothing to do with the valikdity of the Jewish claim on Israel. (It explains why many Jews came to Isreael, but does not justigy the Jewish claim.) The only reason that we can think of to explain why many Muslims deny the Holocaust is they resent anyrhing thing that generates sympthy for Jews. Perhaps readers can offer some onsight here. An unusual aspect of the current Isreali-Palestinian conflict is that children (Arab and Jewish) are not only the victims of the conflict, but they are also participating in the violence. We have all seen the images of rock-throwing Palestinian boys, some as little as 6 years old. Palestinian youth have carried out suicide bombing attacks killing Isrealis of all ages.
President Roosevelt met Saudi King Abdul Aziz ibn Saud in a celebrated encounter aboard an American ship as the President was returning from Yalta (1945). King Saud proclaimed to President Roosevelt that the "Jews have no right to Palestine". and that the Arabs would fight to prevent the creation of a Jewish state. The President began taling about the horors of the NAZI holocaust. Saud asked why "innocent bystanders" (the Palestinian Arabs) hd to pay for the NAZI crimes. Saud suggested that if the NAZIs murdered 3 million Jews in Poland that there now should be room for Jewish refugees. [Oren] There was some truth in what Saud told the President, but he also ignored some inconvenient facts. The chief Palestinian spokesman the Grand Mufti was a NAZI supporter and from Berlin encouraged the NAZIs to kill more Jews. There was also considerable support for the NAZIs in Muslim countries, especially Iraq and Iran. In addition, the Jewish refugees in British Palestine did not only come from Europe, but also were coming from Muslim (mostly Arab countries). The Orinental Jewish refugees (the Mizrahim) were fleeing varying levels of discrimination.
Egypt and Syria both provided havens for NAZI war criminals fleeing Allied justice. They played a variety of security/military/scientific roles in the new Arab states. The Grand Muftik was wanted by Yugoslav authorities for his role with Muslim SS Divisions. He managed to escape French custody and reached Egypt. Here he was hosted by the Egyptian Government in Cairo.
Large numbers of European Jews who survived the Holocaust were unwilling or unable to return to their homes after the War. Many wanted to go to American and were able to do so as aresult of changes in emigration laws.
Many others wanted to go to Israel. This was more difficult. Palestinian Arabs strongly opposed this. British Mandate authorities out of desire to maintain order in Palestine and placate Arabs Governments strictly limited Jewish immigration. Jews attemoting to enter Palestine without authorization were arrested by the British and many interned in camps on Cyprus. Many Americans are familiar with this because of the Leon Uris novel Exodus. Uris explains that his book was fictional, but it was based on actual events. The Haganah obtained ships to get Jews to Israel. And one of them was Exodus. Yossi Harel was the ship commander.
Harel as a teenager he joined the Hagenah served under Orde Wingate, the legendary British Zionist exponent of Jewish self-defense. Harel commanded four Haganah vessels that managed to get 24,000 Europe Jews to Palestine through clandestine maritime operations. The Haganah called the operation Aliyah Bet. The British called it "illegal immigration." The Exodus was a dilapidated excursion liner crewed by mostly American volunteers and captained by Isaac "Ike" Aronowitz--a 23-year-old Palestinian Jew who had served in the British merchant marine. Aronowitz at times argued with Harel. The Exodus was designed to accomodate 400 passengers and a crew of 58. The Hagenah managed to get Exodus out of a French port without permission and headed for Palestine (July 11, 1947).. It carried more than 4,500 Jewish refugees. A Royal Navy convoy seized the over-croded Exodus at sea while it was steaming to Palesine (July 18). The Hagenah resisted and three Jews were killed and 28 hospitalized. The British attempted to find the Hagenah leaders and ship captain, but they his in prepared places. The British brought Exodus into Haifa. A Jewish work detail Jews came aboard to clean the ship which because of the overcrowding was filthy. The Hagenah members walked off with the cleaning detail. This was not the first such incident and the siuation in the Mandate was becoming increasingly difficult. British Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin decided to "teach the Jews a lesson". The British had been intern captured Jews in detention camps on Cyprus. These camps were becoming problems in themselves. Bevin announced a new policy of returning undocumented Jews to their port of embarkation, in this case France. This policyhad the advantage that the British Government would not be respobsible for the refugees as they were on Cyprus. The refugeees refused to cooperate. There were 60 infirm and elderly Jews who went ashore when the Royal Navy returned them to France in a prison ship. The remaining Jews staged a hunger strike off the French coast and refused to leave the Royal Navy prison ships. The result was a highly publicized standoff which lastd 3 weeks which proved embarassing to the British. Finally after consideravle press coverage, the Royal Navy ordered the prison ships to Hamburg, Germany. There Royal Marines put the Jews ashore by force (Septeber 8).
Returning Jews to Germany was not the kind of image Britain's Labor Government wanted. This untenable situation in combination with the escalating violence in Palestine must have played into the British decesion to withdraw.
Harel was quite a figure. After completing his assignments with the Aliyah Bet, he worked with Israeli intelligence and then as a private businessman. In a 1988 radio interview, Harel commented, "As someone who spent many years transporting refugees, I have special feelings on the subject. It doesn't matter to me if they are Jews, Vietnamese, Palestinians or Indians. It's necessary to help refugees and people who have been exiled from their country."
The Allies at the end if World War II formaly formed the United Nations (1945). It was a term used by the Allies during the World War II even before the organization's formal creation. As the sucessor organization to the League of Nations, the UN assumed responsibility for the League mandates, imcluding Palestine. The Arabs resisted UM efforts to mediate the Palestinian issue. The UN appointed an 11-member Committee to study the issue (1947). The Jewish Agency cooperated with the UN Committee, but the Arabs boycotted it (May 1947). The Committee voted 8-3 to recommend partitioning Palestine into Jewish and Arab states. Jeruselum was to be an international zone. The UN General Assembly approved a resolution to partition Palestine (November 29, 1947). The UN Resolution was supported by France, USSR, USA, Liberia, etc. The vote in the General Assembly was very close. The Arab nations as a bloc opposed partition. The Arabs rejected the Resolution. Partition was unacceptable to either the Palestinians or the neighboring Arab states. The Arabs threaten to invade if the Jews moved to establish a Jewish state. Armed irregulars, both Palestinian and other Arabs, immediately began to attack Jewish communities. Low level attacks comtinued as the British withdrawl from Palestine approached.
Isreali terrorists after Worls War II targetted the British whonattempted to limit Jewish emigration to Palestine. Palestinian Arabs carried out attacks on Jews who retaliated. The British attempted to disarm both sides which given potential intervention by Arab armies might be considered a pro-Arab poliy. Palestinian Arabs stepped-up a campaign of violence on the eve of the UN Partition Resolution (November 1947). We do not yet have details on the violence that occurred both before and after the U.N. vote to partition Palestine. Ultimately the irregular activity within Palestine was supported by an actual invasion of Arab regular armies after Israel declared indepencence (May 1948).
The League of Nations had assummed responsiiity for Pallestine after the withdrawl of the Ottoman Empire. The United Nations assumed responsibility as the successor organization to the League of Nations assumed responsibility. Conflict between the Arabs and Jews became too intense for the British to control. Both sides began targetting the British. The most notable attack was the Irgun attack ob the King David Hotel when many British officials were living. As a result of expanding Arab and British terrorism, the British proceeded to withdraw and turn over Palestine to the United Nations. The U.N. partition plan was to take effect on the date of British withdrawal from the Mandate Territory of Palestine. The British began withdrawing their military force (early April). The British mandate over Palestine was due to expire on May 15, 1948. The Jewish Leadership led by future Prime Minister, David Ben-Gurion, declared independence on May, 14, the day before the expiration. One observer calls the British withdrawl "probably the most shamefaced British withdrawal" from any of its possessions. [Shepherd]
The British Mandate over a Palestine expired (May 14, 1948). The Jewish People's Council on the same day meeting at the Tel Aviv Museum approved a proclamation establishung the State of Israel. The new state was recognized that night by the United States and 3 days later by the Soviet Union.
The Arab States responded to the creation of the UN-mandated Jewish State of Israel with a joint invasion (May 1948). Each of the neigboring Arab states had armies with modern weapons although the training was uneven. The neigboring Arabs states (Iraq, Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Egypt) invaded to destroy the new Jewish state. The invasion force included five regular Arab armies along with armed Palestinians, and armed Arab volunteers (including Moslem Brotherhood elements). One of the participants was the Cairo-born and educated engineering student, Yasser Arafat. He was 19 years old and young Leiutenant in the Egyptian Army. He fought on the Sinai front. Palestenian Arab irregulars attack Jewish settlements. Here the Arabs targeted both the Jewish fighters and non-conbatants. Few thought the Jews could prevail. The Haganah was not a modern army and the British had prevented then from acquiring weapons. The Haganah had only a small number of rifles (of a myriad of types and caliburs), few heavy weapons, and no tanks. About 4,000 foreign volunteers join the Isrealis. The Jews proved to be a more formidable force than the Arabs had anticipated. Somehow the Israelis with a hodgepoge of weapons fought off the invading Arab armies. A Jewish Kibutz, Yod Mordichai stoped the entire Egyptian army for 5 days while the Isrealis organized the defense of Telaviv. The most professional military proved to be the British-trained Jordanian army--the Arab Legion. The Isrealis and Jordanians fought each other to a srandstill in Jeruselum. A series of truces failed to stop the fighting. Atrocities were reported on both sides. After a year of fighting, a ceasefire finally ended the war (1949). One of the countroversies resulting from the War was the Palestinian Arab refugees. Some fled Palestine because of both the fighting and Jewish attacks like that Deir Yassin village near Jerusalem. It is unclear to what extent the Arab refugees resulted from this or the fact that the Arabs called on the Arab Palestinians to evacuate Palestine. The idea was to create a "free-fire zone" in which Jews could better be targeted. This was the genisis of the Paestinian refugee problem.
The term refugeees when mentioned in reference to Isreael-Paestinian issue is normally used in reference to Palestinians Arabs. Large numbers of Paestinians fled from the areas where the areas over which Isrealis gained control. Historians believe that during the 1948 war that about 0.7 million Arabs fled or were expelled from the part of Palestine which became Israel. Less well known is that a similar number of Jews were expelled from Muslim countries where their ancestors had lived for centuries, in some cases predating Islam. Rather than being a one-sided refugee priblem, there was in fact an exchange of population. The essential difference is that Israel absorbed and integrated the Jewish refugees, both the European refugeees abd the so called Oriental Jewish refugees from Arab countries. The Arab countries, however, did not absorb or integrate the Palestinian refugees. As a result, decades fter the 1948 war, we are still talking about the Palestinian refugrees, who are now mostly the children and grandchildren of the 1948 refugees. One reader writes, "If 1948 was an injustice, it was not unique. Almost every existing country was built on land seized from someone else at some point in the past. If we set out to reverse every such "injustice", the result would be a global bloodbath. All that happened in 1948 and 1967 was that the Muslim world was defeated in war and lost a small amount of territory. This has happened to many societies at various times. The only unique feature of the Palestine case is that the Muslim world would rather keep fighting -- perhaps to the point of triggering a nuclear holocaust -- rather than accept reality and move on."
Gambul Ambdul Nassar, an Egyptian colonel, overthrew King Farouk. Nassar was a strong proponent of Arab nationalism. His emotional speeches and wide appeal throughout the Arab world. There was even a public realtions union with Syria. Nassar believed in no accimodation with Israel. Differences over the Awan Dam caused Nassar to move toward the Soviets who offered both enguneers and financing for the dam, but large quantities of weapons.
King Abdullah of Jordan was the son of Sharif Hussein, the Emir of Mecca, who had sparked the World War I Arab revolt. As a result of the commitments made, the British installed him as emir of Transjordan, later changed to king of Jordon. Throughout the inter-war years Abdullah had been dependent on British financial support. He also was assisted by them in the formation of an elite force, the Arab Legion, which was commanded and trained by British officers but staffed with Bedouin troops. The Arab Legion acted to maintain order and secure the allegiance of his Bedouin subjects. It became the most professional military in the Middle East. The King along with other Arab leaders participated in the 1948 invasion os Iserael. The experienced caused the King to cchange his mind about a military sollution. The King delivered a different message to the Arabs than Nassar who was determined to destroy Isrrael with military force. King Andullah became convinced that an accomodation needed to be reached with Israel. Nasser's impassioned pleas had more appeal to the Arab public than King Abdullah's quiet voice of compromise. This flexible approach was anathema to Palestinians and many other Arabs. A group of 10 conspirators plotted to assasinate the King. A young Palestinian shot the King at the al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem (July 20, 1951). The leader of the group was a cousin of the Grand Mufti. King Abdullah's grandsom, Prince Hussain, was at his side when he was shot.
The 1949 ceasefire did not end the killing. The Uninted Nations helped supervise the ceasefire along the volitile Egyptian-Isreali border. This limited incidents between the regular armies on both sides. The Arab strategy beginning about 1950 with the regular armies sidelined consisted of cross-border attacks by "Fedayeen" irregulars, supported by the Arab states surrounding Israel. The Arab irregulars targeted civilian or soft targets like Jewish settlements. Homes and busses were bombed and shot up.
The UN peace keepers were unable to prevent the attacks. The Arab irregulars received varying degress of support from Arab governments. There is a long list of attacks on Isrealis from the 1950s through to the Six-Days War. All of this occurred before the occupation of the West Bank which many Arab sources often site as the cause of Palestinian terror attacks. In response, the Isrealis organized comando operations of their own. A young Isreali officer, Erirl Sharom, organized Unit 101. Armed with Isreali-built Uzzis. Unit 101 was specifically tasked with rsesponding to Faydaeen attacks.
Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser emerged as the most influential Arab leader. He was determined to defeat Israel and in his view loberate Palestine. He accepted an offer from the Soviets for modern arms including planes and tanks on generous terms (1955). This permitted him to build very powerful forces to attack Israel from Egyptian bases in the Siani. He also allowed the
Fedayeen freer reain to carry out terroist attacks. He announced ithout mincing words, "Egypt has decided to dispatch her heroes, the disciples of pharaoh and the sons of Islam and they will cleanse the Land of Israel .... There will be no peace on Israel's border because we demand vengeance, and vengeance is Israel's death." [August 31, 1955] At the time, Egyptian intelligence was heavily involved in training and equipping the Fedayeen. This involved Jordan because the Fedayeen operated primarily from bases in Jordan which had seized the West Bank in the 1948 War. Egyptian Sianai was distant from Osreali population centers. The West Bank was, however, was right next to potential Isreali targets. This was the beginning of a familiar pattern. The Fedayeen attacks lwere largely on Isreali civilians. They violated the 1948 armistice agreement which prohibited provision that prohibited attacks by paramilitary forces. Even so, when Israel struck back it was censured by the U.N. Security Council for its counterattacks. The situation worsened when Nasser closed the Straits of Tiran, essentially blockading Elat at the head of the Gulf of Aqaba. Nasser further escalated the situation by nationalizing the Suez Canal (July 1956). Nassar left no doubt about his intentions.
"I am not solely fighting against Israel itself. My task is to deliver the arab world from destruction through Israel's intrigue, which has its roots abroad. Our hatred is very strong. There is no sense in talking about peace with Israel. There is not even the smallest place for negotiations." (October 14)
The Arab strategy was to launch a combined three prong invasion of Israel. Egypt, Jordan, and Syria, the front-line states, signed a tripartite agreement (October 25). Jordan and Syria agreed to give Nasser command of their armies. Israel decided to act before the three countries could launch a coordimate invasion.
The Six Days War changed the dynamic of the conflict between Israel and Palestine. The United Nations for 8 years patrolled the Isreali-Egyption border in the Siani. Nasser backed with an infusion of Soviet weapons decided to cibfront Israel militarily. Nasser otganized an alliance with Syria and Jordan. He moved 100,000 troops to the border armed with 1,000 tanks. He ordered the United Nations out. An audacious Isreali air attack destroyed the Egyptian Air force on the ground. Egyptian Air Firce commanders were at first afraid to tell Nassar wjat had happened. Nassar spoke on radio and television claiming that the Isreali Air Firce had been destroyed. The Arab public was estatic. Nassar urged the Syrians and Jordanians to joun the war with Isreal. He assured them that Egypt was winning the war in the Siamai. Israli armor desimated the Egyptians and pushed to Suez. The Isrealkis then turned on the Jordanians and Syrians that had invaded. The Isrealis managed to seize the rest of Jeruselum.
The Isreali attack on the USS Liberty during he Six Days war (1967) is still unexplained. There were 34 Americans killed and 171 wounded. The Isrealis claim it was a tragic mistake. Many in the CIA including Richard Helm believe that the Isrealis attacked the Liberty on purpose, although they are baffled as to why. [Helms]
Eight Arab heads of state met for a summit conference held in Khartoum, Sudan (August 29 - September 1, 1967). The Conference is important because it essentually stated the consensus that would become the official policy of most Arab states toward Israel for the following two decades. The essential policy was No to Peace, No to Recognition, and No to Negotiation with Israel. This was a definitive restatement of the Arab policies since the 1949 armistice.
This was a sharp rejection od Israel's "land for peace" offer. The Arab heads of state rejected the idea of a petroleum embargo on the West. This had become a major idea floated in the Arab world. Egyptian President Gamal Abdul Nasser after the disatrous defeat in the 6 Day War has to find someone to blame the defeat on least the Egyptian people begin to question his leadershipnand policies. The Arab countries had been armed to the teeth with oil money and Soviet aid. There is no doubt that the Arabs had the military forces to destroy Israel. They failed due to poor leadership. When he spoke to the Egyptian people, he blamed the Israeli victory on air-support provided by the United States. This of course was an out right lie.
He also orated, "The Sixth Fleet runs on Arab Petroleum." Other resolutions included the creation of a fund to assist the economies of Egypt and Jordan. Another agreement was reached to end the inter-Arab war in Yemen. Currently the Arab Khartoum Resolutions with the "three no's" rejecting peace with Israel are currently being laundered into an attempt at reconciliation with Israel.
Jordan annexed the West Bank after the First Isreli-Palestinian War (1948-49). Egypt seized Gaza. The economy in the West Bank and Gaza was stagnant during the era of Jordanian/Egyptian rule. Jordon joined Egypt and Syria in the Six Days War (1967). As a result of the War, Israel occupied the West Bank and Gaza . One result of Isreali occupation was a substantial growth of the West Bank and Gaza economy. The per capita income in the West Bank and Gaza was about $360 (1967). This expnded to about $2,400 by 1993, one of the highest levels in the Aran world exceot for the oil states. Israel as a result of the Oslo Peace Process granted the Palestinians self rule (1993). The economy again stagnated falling to about $2,000 (2000). Even so, Palestinian Arabs were crossing the border illegally from Jordan in order to live in Occupied Territories because living standards were higher than in Jordon. Than the Intifada started and the Palestinian GDP and income levels plumetted.
The Arabs began a cross-border "War of Attrition" against Israel.
The Palesinians initiated a campaign of airline hijacking in the late 1960s. They seized several planes in the 1970s. The tactic was adopted because hijackings made headlines and there was very little security at most airports. The first target was El Al, but when the Isreilis took security measures, the hijackers turned to Wester airlines which did not adopt needed security measures. Lebanese Shi'a operatives adopted similar tactics in the 1980s. The hijackings became increasingly deadly as time progressed.
was stopped by armed Isreli guards.
Palestinian operatives seized Air France Flight 139 (1976). The Hijackers diverted the plane to the Entebbe Airport in Kapala, Uganda. There they were supported by the President Idi Amin. The Isrelai launch Operation Entebbe. Israeli commandos assault the building holding the hijackers and hostages killing all Palestinian hijackers and rescuing 105 persons, almost all Israeli hostages; three passengers and one commando are killed. Another passenger who had been taken to a hospital is subsquently murdered.
Palestinian operatives seize Lufthansa Flight 181 (also known as the Landshut) from Palma de Mallorca to Frankfurt (1977).
The hijacking was ended in Mogadishu when GSG 9 commandos stormed the plane. Three hijackers were killed and 86 hostages were freed, but the pilot was killed. The West Germany's Red Army Faction was believed to be involved.
* Flag of LebanonFlag of Kuwait1984: December 3: Kuwait Airways Flight 221 Lebanese Shi'a hijackers divert a Kuwait Airways flight to Tehran. Two American USAID officials are shot dead and dumped on the tarmac. The plane is taken by Iranian security forces who were dressed as custodial staff.[1]
* Flag of Lebanon1985 Flag of the United States: Lebanese Shi'a Amal hijackers divert TWA Flight 847 from Athens to Beirut with 153 people on board. The stand-off ends after Israel frees 31 Lebanese prisoners.
* Palestinian flag Flag of Egypt Flag of Malta1985:Three Palestinian members of the Abu Nidal Organization hijacked on November 23, its Athens to Cairo route,EgyptAir Flight 648 and fly it to Malta. All together, 60 people died, most of them when Egyptian commandos stormed the aircraft.
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PLO strength in Jordan grew to the point that it was armed threat to the estanlished Jordanian Government. This led to a military confrontation. The Jordanian Army expelled the PLO to Lebanon.
The PLO from new bases in Lebanon launched terrorist attacks on Israel and Isrealis. The best known was the massacre of Isreali atheletes at the Munich Olympics (1972). Other Palestinian groups carried out aircraft hijackings. There was also a notable attack on a cruise ship.
The Egyptians surprised Isreali with a lighting crossing of the Suez defenses on the Jewish holiday of Yon Kippur (October 6, 1973). The Isrealis relied heavily on signals intelligence which was a major factor in the Egyptian ability to surprise the Isreali Defense Force (IDF).
The Syrians attacked in the north. This time, however, the Jordanians did not participate in the attack in Israel. Large numbers of Isreli tanks and planes were destroyed as a result of weaponery provided by the Soviets. During the 19 days of fighting the Isrealis lost 109 planes which was 35 percent of their air force. The Soviets had supplied the Arabs modern radar guided Surface to Air Missles (SAMs). Had the war contunued the Isreali Air Force would have been destroyed. Because the Isreali defense strategy relied heavily on air and armor forces, Isreali could have been defeated.
Military historians criricicise Isrealis reliance on signals intelligence as well as lack of attention to infantry and artillery. President Nixon ordered a rapid resupply of of the Isreali armor and air forces. Israel counterattacked and drove the Syrians back and crossed the Suez Canal into Egypt. The Isrealis also counterattacked in the north, seizing the Golan Heights from the Syrians. The Isreali victory was not a victory of superior technology. The Arabs had high tech Siviet weaponry which to a large degree overcame Isreali superority in armor and air craft. Rather the deciding factors proved to be the superior effectiveness of IDF ledership and the training and fighting spirt of the individual soldier. About 2,500 Isrealis were killed in the War. Arab governments never released casualty figures. The War led to an Arab oil embargo. It also led American planners to reassess its air power strategy. Many of the Isreali planes shot down were American F-4 Fantoms. This gave a major boost to stealth research and the drive to reduce the radar signature of aircraft.
The move of the PLO to Lebasnon trabsformed the dynamics of Lenanese politics. Lebanon is a very complicated mixture of of Muslims (Sunni and Shi'a), Maronite Christians, Druse and others. The PLO introduced a radical, armed secular group into the Lebanese equation. The result was a devestating inter-Arab Civil War.
The Arab response to Israel's declaration of independence was war. Egypt was the main front-line Arab state confronting Israel. A series of wars with Israel (1948, 1956, 1967, and 1973)) and the armament programs to support confrontation with Israel had cost Egypt dearly.
Israel during the Six-Day War (1967) occupied Egypt's Sinai Peninsula. The effort to retake the Sinai and destroy Isreal failed again in the Yom Kippur War (1973). President Sadat concluded that Egypt could not defeat Israel and the policy of military confrontation was not benefitting the country and decided to attempt a diplomatic sollution. Sadat launched his diplomatic effort with
an unprecedented visit to Jerusalem (November 19-21, 1977), shicking much of the Arab world. He aaddress the Israeli Knesset. This was the first peace effot by an Arab hed of state. Sadat ws lauded in the West. Time Magazine made him 1977 "Man of the Yea". He was widely vilified in the Arab world. Sadat's visit launched peace negotiations between Israel and Egypt (1977-78). The two sides made some progress, but then deadlocked. President Carter offered to host President Sadat and Primeminister Begin for a summit meeting in Washington to break the deadlock. Both accepted
The summit meeting was held at the Camp David Presidential Retreat (September 5-17, 1978).
What followed wer 12 days of very difficult negotiations. The two sides were both ready to accept failure, but somehow President Carter kept the two talking. It was one of the great achievements of his presidency. he negotiations were finally concluded by the signing of two agreements at the White House. President Carter witnessed the Accords which were signed by Sadat and Begin.
The agreements were founded on UN resolutions 242 and 33. The goal was both to conclude a lasting peace between Israel and Egypt. The Camp David Accords as they came to be called were meant 1) to constitute a basis for peace between Egypt and Israel and 2) to reach "a just, comprehensive, and durable settlement of the Middle East conflict" for all willing to negotiate peave with Israel.
The first agreement dealt with peace between Israel and Egypt and the return of the Sinai to Egypt and was to be concluded within 3 months. Israel agreed to withdraw from all of the Sinai within 3 years, and to dismantle its air bases near the Gulf of Aqaba and the town of Yamit. Egypt promised to recognize Israel, and to allow Israeli ships to pass through the Suez Canal, the Strait of Tiran, and the Gulf of Aqaba. The second agreement was a framework for ending thecIsreali-Palestinian conflict. The agreement provided a format for negotiations leaing to autonomy for the Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza. The two agreements between led to a negotiated peace between Egypt and Israel (1979). It was the first between Israel and any of the surronding Arab states. Sadat and Begin were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for this major step toward peace in the Middle East (1978).
President Saddat made a real effort to live up to the Camp David Accords (1978). It is difficult to assess how this affected his popularity with the Eguptian public. It certainly alienated the Muslim Brotherhood and other fundamentalist elements. The animosity increased when Sadat cracked down on fundamentalists (September 1981). There were mass arrests. Human rights groups in the West also criticised him. Muslim Brotherhood elements assassinated Egyptian President Anwar Sadat at a military ceremony (October 6). The Muslim Brotherhood had a long record of violence in Egyptian history. They had also murdered Egyptian Primeminister Mahmoud Nokrashy (1948) and attempted to murder his successor Ibrahim Abdel Hadi, but instead killed Supreme Couyrt Judge Moustashar Ahmad El-Kazendari. They twice attempted to kill President Gamal Abdel Nasser--in 1954 and 1965.
PLO units from securebases in Lebanon crossed the border to attack Isrealis and then retreted back to their safe havens in Lebanon. The Isrelis finally invaded Lebanon to attack the PLO.n.
PLO troops withdrew from Beirut and were transferred to neighboring countries after guarantees of safety were provided for thousands of Palestinian refugees .
The Oslo Peace Process seem to offer the possibility of peace. The official name of the Oslo accords was the "Declaration of Principles On Interim Self-Government Arrangements". It was the foundation of the Oslo Process--peace negotiations between Israel and the Palestinians between 1993 and 2000. They were signed at a Washington ceremony hosted by President Bill Clinton (September 13, 1993). Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat and Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin famously shook hands, seemingly ending decades as sworn enemies. The foundation of the process was the idea that Israel would trade land for peace. The Oslo Process envisaged that the Israelis would proceed to transfer portions of the occupied West Bank and Gaza Strip to the control of the Palestinian Authority, a quasi-state organization. The Palestinian Authority would in exchange guarantee Israel's security by ending Palestinian Organization (PLO) terrorism and supressing armed Palestinian groups that failed to comply. After progress was made in these areas, Israel and the PA would negotiate a final agreement involving a mutual recognition of each other's territorial claims. The "land for peace" transfers were seen as building mutual trust and confidence. Finally the two sides would negotiations the "final status" issues that were left unresolved at Oslo. These included some of the most difficult issues: Palestinian statehood, the status of Jerusalem, Jewish settlements, and the right of return. Although the Oslo Accords were signed with great optimism, there was considerable opposition to the agreement, especially among various Palestinian groups.
Clinton, Bill. My Life (Knopf: New York, 2004), 957p.
Hammer, Joshua. A Season in Bethleham: Holy War in a Sacred Place (2003).
Helms, Eichards with William Hood. A Look over My Shoulder: A Life in the Central Intelligence Agency (Random House, 2003), 478p.
Hertzberg, Arthur. The Fate of Zionism: A Secular Future for Israel and Palestine (Harper: San Francisco, 2003).
Oren, Michael B. Power, Faith, and Fantasy (2007),
Rosenthal, Donna. The Israelis: Ordinary People in an Extrodinary Land (Free Press, 2003), 466p. This is rather a popular, but insightful description of Isralei society.
Ross, Dennis. The Missing Peace. Ambassador Ross was deeply involved in the Camp David discussions. Ross includes in his book a verbatim copy of the final offer Barak made and that Arafat refused to accept.
Shepherd, Naomi. Ploughing Sand: British Rule in Palestine, 1917-1948 (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2000), 290p.
Wasserstein, Bernard. Israelis and Palestinians: Why Do They Fight? Can They Stop? (Yale University Press, 2003).
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