Figure 1.--The internationl community widely condemned Japan for its invasion of Manchuria (1931) and China proper (1937), but at first offered little actual assistance. Here Chinese-American Cubs and Scouts demonstrate againsr the Japanese in New York City's Chinatown during 1938. The BSA had rules against Scouts engaging in politics, but of course feeling against the Japanese was especially strong among Chinese-Americns. American ethnic politics, however, played a smaller role in World War II than in World War I.

The Japanese launched an invasion of China proper, launching the Second Sino-Japanese War. (July 1937). The Japanese Kwantung Army turned a small incident into a full-scale war. Chinese forces were unable to effectively resist the Japanese. The Japanese military was not only better armed and organized, they were also incredibly brutal. The rape of Nanking was ome of the most terrible attrocities of World War II. The Japanese methodically moved south, seizing control of most of eastern China and all of the major ports by the time war broke out in Europe. (1939). The Kuomintang Army was battered, but the Japanese were unable to destroy it. Chiang used the samed tactics that Mao and the Communists had used, withdraw into the rugged, easily defensible interior. The Japanese moved up rivers and railroad lines into the interior of China. Much of the Japanese Army was committed to the war in China. It did not prove as draining for Japan, however, as the Soviet campaign did for Germany. This was in pat because of the ineffectiveness of the Kuomintang Army. Resistance to the Japanese fell primarily on the Kuomintang because the Communists were in the remote areas of northwestern China. Also neither Chiang or Mao wanted to weaken their forced by fighting pitched battles with the Japanese.

Manchuria (1931)

The Japanese Kwantung Army occupied Manchuria, a Chinese province, using as a pretext a faked incident on the main railroad (1931). Japan then decalared "Manchukuo" an independent state, setting up Pu Yi, the last Manchu Emperor of China as puppet Emperor (1932). Anti-Japanese disturbances broke out in Shanghai. The Japanese bombed the unprotected city to quell the disturbances. There was no effort to hit military targets. This was the first of many Japanese terror bombings of civilian populations. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations as a resulted of the criticism of her military operations in Manchuria and China (1933). The Japanese encouraged Japanese "colonizers" to emmigrate to Manchukuo, but few responded to the propaganda films depicting an Asian paradise. For the Chinese in Manchukuo, life became increasingly difficult.

Japanese Economy

The Japanese Army was professionally competent compared to the Chinese, but they were not economists. The occupation of Manchuria did not return notable economic benefits to Japan. In fact, the occupation has necesitated considerable costs, primarily increased military outlays. The Government was forced to adopt costly monetary and tax policies that affected living standards. This did not disuade the militarists who sought another incident to justify their next step, the invasion of China proper.

Marco Polo Bridge Incident (March 1937)

The Japanese invasion of China proper, launching the Second Sino-Japanese, developed from a small border squirmish (July 1937). Some historians also date the beginning of World War II with the Japanese invasion. Fighting began with the Battle of Lugou Bridge, often referred to as the Marco Polo Bridge Incident (July 7, 1937). The incident occurred during provactive Japanese military maneuvers. Precisely what occurred at the bridge is not know with any real certainty. There were casualties on both sides. It was enough for the Militarits to cast the invasion of China in terns necessary to avenge the Emperor's honor. The Japanese Kwantung Army turned this relatively small incident into a full-scale war between Japan and China. The Japanese Government, however, did not formally declare war.

Chinese Forces

Chinese forces were unable to effectively resist the Japanese. Japan had a modern, well-equipped army. China did not. China had not industrialized like Japan. The country did not have the capability of designing and manufacturing modern weapons. The Nationalist Army relied on importing weapons. They had almost no air force, few armored units, and inadequate artillery. Nor was the leadershio of the Nationalist Army as professionl, honest, or as committed as the Japanese.

Japanese Military

The Japanese military was not only better armed and organized, they were also incredibly brutal. The rape of Nanking was one of the most terrible attrocities of World War II. The Japanese military had no idea what they were getting involved with in China. Some commanders estimated that they would be able to defeat Chiang's Nationalist Army in 3 months. This was a midtake they would repeat again when several years later they attacked the United States. Curiously the Japanese seemed not to have realized that their success in China was due in large part to superior equipment and exceptionally poor leadership of the Nationlist armies. Rather the Japanese seemed to have assumed that their success was largely due to a mixture of racial superiority and a martial spirit. Thus they were illing to go to war with the Unites States, a country with a far superior industrial base that was able to equip its military with modern weapons .

Initial Campaign

The Japanese drove for the key port of Sghanghai. The Chinese from the beginning adopted the strategy of trading of "space for time". The Nationalist Army refused to engage the Japanese in pitched battles in which it could be cut off and destroyed. Rather they engaged in delaying actions around important northeastern cities. The objective was to allow to allow important professionals and officials to flee west into safe interior cities. There was also an attempt to move key industries.

Shanghai

The Japanese after the the Battle of Lugou Bridge drove on Shganghai. This was a city of imense importance because it was a huge port and China's commercial center. The Japanese bombed the city which had no air denses and conducted wide spread attacks on Chinese civikians when the army entered the city. Tghet respected the European enclaves.

Nanjing

The Nationalists moved ther capital to Nanjing, The Japanese proceeded to seize Nanjing and Northern Shanxi. The Japanese Army consisted of a well-equiped force of about 200,000 men. The Nationalist Army was substantially larger, but poorly equipped and led. When reaching Nanjing the Japanese conducted an orgy of killing virtually unrivaled in modern history. Nartionalist soldiers a civilians were killed in mass. No one knows the total number of victims. Some historians believe that 300,000 people may have been killed.

Hankow (October 1938)

Hankow fell October25, 1938)

American Neutrality Act

One action that did not take place after the Japanese invasion was that President Roosevelt did not invoke the embargo provisions of the Neutrality Act. Here the Act seem more appropriate than the Spanish Civil War when the Act was invoked. The Japanese invasion began a major war between two countries, although neither country actually declared war. Unlike with Spain, there was not great cry among America's powerful isolationist lobby to invole the Act. The reason for this is unclear and an assessment would require a major study. Our belief is that it probably reflects the much greater fear of war with Germany and much less concern over the dangers posed by Japan. (The Isolationist Movement included those with a wide range of interests and motives, but fear of war with Germany was a major factor.) An corrilary reason is that most Americans, in part because of prevalent rascist attitudes, did not see Japan as a serious military threat. The Panay incident (December 1937) had in addition affected American public opinion. The Administration's failure to act also probably reflects the learning experience after the enbargo on Spain and a judgement that in gthis case an embargo would hurt China much more than Japan.

Air Attacks

The small Chinese air force consisted of mostly obsolete air craft. The Chinese also had no tactical doctrine for effectively persuing the aircraft they had. As a result, the Japanese destroyec most of the Chinese air force early in the War. This left the Chinese Army without air cover. The Japanese used their air superiority not only to attack military targets, but to indiscrinately attack Chinese citis as well. The cities had no anti-aircraft defenses or organized civil defense systems. The result was extensive civilian casualties. It is unclear what the Japanese objective was in attacking civilian targets. Presumably it was to terrorize the Chinese into surrendering. This did not occur. The Chinese simply moved deeper into the interior of China beyond the reach of the Japamese Army, but not beyond the range of Japanese bombers. One unintended impact of the Japanese bombing raids was a huge impact on the Japanese image among Americans. The Japanese attacks were reported by Western journalists as impages appeared in both newspapers/magazines and movie newreels. Public opinion in America which was already oro-Chinese turned massively anti-Japanese. There was no interest in enterung the war, but there was considerable sympathy for aiding China. And one of China's main requests was aid in feveloping a modern aor force.

Second Nationalist-Communist Truce (1937)

After the Marco Polo Bridge Incident (1937) resulted in negotialtions between the Kuomintang and the Communists and a Second Truce. The alliance never really took hold. There was to much distrust between the two. There were incidents as early as 1938 which became more frequent in 1940. The Japanese operations were primarily aimed at areas occupied by the Nationalists. The Communists used the Nationlist weakness to expand their influence. They courted the peasantry with administrative reforms as well as land- and tax-reform.

Japanese Offensive

The Japanese methodically moved south, seizing control of most of eastern China, all of the major ports, and the rich Chang Jiang Valley in central China by the time war broke out in Europe. (1939).

Chinese Stategy

The Kuomintang Army was battered, but the Japanese were unable to destroy it. Chiang used the samed tactics that Mao and the Communists had used, withdraw into the rugged, easily defensible interior. The Nationalist learned that open combat with the Japanse was suisidal. Thus Chaing's strategy was to preserve his army at all cost. The army was withdrawn into remote areas that the Japanese found difficult to reach in strength. The Nationalist and Chinese also attempted to maintain pockets of resistance within Japanese occupied areas to harass the enenmy. This helped to complicate Japanese attempts to administer and exploit occupied reas economically. It also forced the Japanese to divert combat troops to occupation duties.

Japanese Commitment

The Japanese moved up rivers and railroad lines into the interior of China. Much of the Japanese Army was committed to the war in China. It did not prove as draining for Japan, however, as the Soviet campaign did for Germany. This was in part because of the ineffectiveness of the Kuomintang Army. Resistance to the Japanese fell primarily on the Kuomintang because the Communists were in the remote areas of northwestern China. Also neither Chiang or Mao wanted to weaken their forced by fighting pitched battles with the Japanese.

Japanese Objectives

The Japanese goal was not to conquer China and adn=minister it as they did in Formosa and Korea. The Japanese invasion had been launched by the Kwantung Army. The Goverment policy which eventually developed was to destroy the Nationalist Army so China had no potetially string central government that could offer effective resistance. They could then set up puppet governments that they could control. The Japanese gained victory after vicyory, but could not decsively defeat the Nationaliss who withdrew into the vastness of central China. The growing nationalism of the Chinese people made it difficult for the Japanese to establish pupet regimes. Their incredible brutality made it impossible.

Foreign Assessment

Foreign military especially after the sweeping Japanese advances concluded that the Japanese would defeat the Chinese. They moted in particular that the Japanese were seizing the coastal, most industrialized and most prosperous areas of the country. Thus they reason that China could not adequately equip and supply its armies. In addition, other countries except for the Soviet Union seemed reluctant to get involved by supplying war material least they damage their owm reltions with Japan.

Created: 7:02 AM 2/2/2005
Last updated: 1:47 AM 8/2/2007