Figure 1.--This school photo was taken in Greece, probably in the north where the Communist insurgency was the strongest. Here the insurgents could be supplied from bases in Yugoslabia and Bulgaria. Thus the fighting and resulting destruction was the the most intense in the north. The photograph was probably taken about 1949-50, just after the end of the Covil War. It shows the consequences of the war. The children had no shoes even though it was wintertime. And the school had no desks and chairs.
The Greek Civil War was one of the opening phases of the Cold War which decended on Europe after the defeat of the NAZIs. The German Wehrmacht was in 1944 being relentlessly pushed west by the Soviet Red Army. Rather than being cut off in the Balkans and Greece, the Wehrmacht begam to withdraw in 1944. British troops in 1944 entered Greece as the Wehrmact withdrew north. The Resistance groups attacked the fleeing Germans. Elections return to Greece after the the Germans withdrew in 1944, but were hotly contested. The Communists boycotted the elections and a bloody guerilla campaign that amounted to a Civil War which tore the country apart. The Greek People's Liberation Army (ELAS) organized by the Greek Communist Party was the strongest force in the Resistance and tried to seize control of Greece. Only 2 months after the departure of the Germans from Athens, the ELAS and British fought strret battles. An armistice was signed with the British in 1945, but a civil war developed among the Greek political parties. The British were weakened by nearly 6 years of War and were unable to fully support the non-communists. Britain which had shouldered enormous costs during the War was essentially a bankrupt nation. Very substantial costs followed the War such as the occupation of Germany and contining respnsibilities in Cyprus, Greece, Palestine, and other countries. This is one reason why rationing had to be continued in Britain after the War. This proved extremely unpopular with serious domestic political consequences. The British also turned to rightest elements in Greece, including some who had collaborated with the Germans. Soon some members of the anti-NAZI Resistance movement were being arrested. The British asked for American assistance. The United States beginning in 1947 began supplying arms to the Greek Government. The Americans helped construct damaged infrastructure like air fields, bridges, docks, railways and communication networks. Fighting in the Civil War continued for 4 years. The Communists finally in 1949 declared a cease fire.
Complicated Period
The events following Liberation and the Greek Civil War itself are very complicated and little known outside of Greece. What followed liberation was to some extent the guerillas beginning to fight the British liberators, who had made considerable sacrifices for Greece, and the British turning to right wing elements, some of whom had colaborated with the Germans. It is indeed difficult to provide summary of what exactly happened without a substantial background in Greek history. This period in Greek history is also still highly controversial in Greece itself. Many Greeks themselves tend to adopt the communist or right-wing propaganda regarding the history of that period.
The Greeks did not submit meekly to Axis (German, Italian, and Bulgarian) occupation and Ressistance groups soon fornmed. From the earliest period of the occupation, ressistance groups began to organize. The Greeks were, however, divided into feuding political factions, including monarchists, Communists, democrats, and others. Greece's contentious political parties were unable to work together against the Germans. The Communists played an especially importanf role in the Greek resistance. One group of political leaders, trade unionists, communists and others approved the National Liberation Front (EAM) and a military branch
(ELAS). Other parties set up theie own resistance organizations. The two most important were the EKKA and EDES (National and Social Liberation and National Greek Democratic League). Leaders of ELAS, EKKA and EDES were former officers in the Greek army. They thus organized armed resistance to the Germans. Attacks on the Germans and Italians were conduced in the countryside and cities. The Resiatance was especially active in the countryside. The Germans and Italians found that it difficult to track down the guerillas. The German reaction was brutal beyond description. Normally large numbers of Greek civilians were executed for
every German killed. The ratio varried. To expedite these reprisals, the Germans often arrested civilians in advance who could then be convemiently executed. There were also reprisals on villages in the country, but these envolved major operations. The Germans carried out brutal reprisals in both the country side and cities, usually executing men and women unconnected to the attacks. Strikes and sabotage of all nature were organized. There was some coopertion between the different
Resistance groups.
Greek Army
An anti-monarchist mutiny occurred amony the Greek military that was opersting with the Allies (April 1944).
Lebanon Agreement
As it became clear the the Germans would have to withdraw from Greece, anti-NAZI Greeks held the Lebanon Conference (May 1944). The Greek Moinsrchial Giovernment and msny politicans had escaped the Axis invasion. Participants included the Greek monarchial government in exile, the pre-war Greek political parties, and the major Greek Resistance organizations. British ambassador Reginald Leeper also participated. Prime-minister Georgios Papandreou's policy was to create a National Unity government (The National Contract). He hoped to do this with participation of EAM, essentially the Communist Paarty of Greece. It was a difficult Conference, although a partial agreement was reached--The Lebanon Agreement. Thbere were many unresolved issues and signiicant tensions existed amnong the parties. The Lebanon Arrangement called for most if the ELAS soldiers to disarm in December.
German Withdrawl (September 1944)
The German Wehrmacht was in 1944 being relentlessly pushed west by the Red Army. Rather than being cut off in the Balkans and Greece, the Wehrmacht begam to withdraw in 1944. The Germans in September 1944 began evacuating the Greek mainland so that they would not be cut off in the Balkans by the Red Army which was pushing into Hungary, Romania, and nearing Yugoslavia. The situation deteriorated further when Bulgaria switched sides in the War. The Germans secretely began withdrawing forces, but it was soon clear what was underway. Sone German combat forces were airlifted out of Crete. British carriers and other naval units made the full evacuation of Grete as well as the Aegean Islands impossible. Many Germans were thus stranded on Crete and the various Aegean Islands that they had occupied. (The Germans did not surender some of these islands until May 1945.) The Resistance groups to some extent attacked the fleeing Germans, but were begining to think more about the political future of Greece.
The Resistance seized control of Athens on October 12, 1944. British troops in 1944 entered Greece as the Wehrmact withdrew north. The Government of National Unity which had been the government in exile under G. Papandreou arrived in the port of Pireas on October 18 aboard a British naval vessel. Today in Greece this is now celebrated as Liberation Day. Liberation in Greece, however, did not bring peace. Conflict developed between the Communist Resistance forces EAM/ELAS which had dominated resistance to the Germans and the British-backed conservative Papandreou government.
"Dekemvriana" (December 1944)
The Greek Civil War is generally seen as starting in December 1944. The struggle for control of liberated Greece resulted in conflict between EAM/ELAS and the British-backed monarchial government. There was considerable concern about a possible Communist seizure of power. ELAS was the strongest element in the Resistance and if the British had not intervened probably could have seized control of the Greek Government. The British as a result toughened their position against ELAS and their soldiers--the andartes. In some cases the British even made common cause with rightest elements that had collaborated to various extents with the NAZIs. [Manzower] To survive in occupied Greece,some degree of colsaboration was inevitable. Prime-minister Papandreou once established in Athens demanded that all ELAS/EDES soldiers disarm (December 1). General Roland Scobie, commander of the British forces in Greece supported the Government. ELAS/EDES refused to give up the weapons, arguing that the government was not taking measures to arrest the collaborators. EAM members quit their Government posts and called on the people to protest. EAM responded with a mass rally to protest the Natioinal Contract Government's actions (Devember 1944). Actual fihting was virtually inevitable given EM's desire to seize power. They were watching what was happening in Easrern Europe and thought they could pull it off in Greece. The Government and police for good reason believed that the demostrations were a cover for a Communist coup. In a mass demostration in Athens the police opened fire and several civilians were killed. EAM responds with a war on the streets of Athens--the December events ("Dekemvriana"). The British intervened to support the Government. There are several arguments regarding the exact date that the Civil War began, but the "Dekemvriana" clashes that took place in Athens can be regarded as the official start of the Civil War. The fighting continued for a month. The police and the British troops won out in Athens and the other cities. The British Armny was the key factor here. With out the British, ELAS forces almost ceratainly would have won. This is different than in much of Eastern Europe where Communism was imposed by the Red Army and NKVD. EAM/ELAS continued, however, to control much of the countryside. This was basdically a continuatioin of the National Schism that had develope in the early 20th century, although now with a Cold War coloration.
Varkiza Agreement (February 1945)
After fighting died down the leaders of both factions began talking again. The Government of National Unity and the leaders of the Left signed the Varkiza agreement. The Varkiza Agreement (February 12, 1945). It included nine articles, two obligations for the Left and seven for the Government. The obligations for the Left were, ELAS was to give up their weapons and release all political prisoners. The obligationa of the Government (which acquired the status of the official Greek Government) included the formation of a national army, the amnesty of "political crimes", the release of the political prisoners, the establishment of a democratic regime that will protect peoples rights, the purge of the collaborationists from the public administration and their trial and finally, the call for a referendum for the fate of monarchy and a new constitution in Greece. Neither side, however, in the ensuing months fully complied with their obligations under the Varkiza Agreement. This is, however, controversial with partisans of the Left and Right blaming the other side for failure to meet their obligations. ELAS released the prisoners but didn't give up all the weapons and the government didn't do much to purge the collaborators. Indeed many of them went on [?parody ] trials and were released. The agreement like the Lebanon agreement did not hold. Both sides blamed the other. It is difficult to asesss the intentioms of the laesers who commitred to the agreement. The Communists as usual blamed the police, charging that they harass and persecute those they believed to be Communists. It should be sressed that not all left-wing grouos were Communists, but there uis mo doubt the Communists were in control. Communist inspired and Vigilante groups participated in violent actions. It is difficult to dermined how much of all of this was ordered by the leadershio or actions by small groups acting on their own. Often the assessnmenbt of authors is dermined more by their political orientatiin than actual facts.
The Greek Civil War was one of the opening phases of the Cold War which decended on Europe after the defeat of the NAZIs. The United States and its allies following World War II fought a 45-year struggle war with the Soviet Union and China. The War pitted the ideals of Western democracy and free enterprise against totalitarian states with command economies. At stake was the future social order of mankind. Germany's defeat left Stalin in control of the countries of Eastern Europe. President Harry Truman when he became president in April 1945 began taking a stronger approach to the Soviets, disturbed by Soviet actions in Poland. Stalin proceeded to install People's Republics in these states which meant Stalinist police states subservient to the Soviet Union. American and European democracies sharply criticised the Soviet actions. Winston Churchill warned in 1946 that an "iron curtain" was descending through the middle of Europe. Joseph Stalin who had virtually allied himself with Hitler in 1939 to launch World War II, blamed the War on "capitalist imperialism" and threatened Western Europe. President Truman decided to support Western Europe economically (the Marshall Plan) and militarily (NATO). The Cold War was a period of intense East-West competition, tension, and conflict, but always short of full-scale war.
Elections (March 1946)
Elections return to Greece after the the Germans withdrew in 1944, but were boycotted by ELAS and the Communists. The Left complained that the Government had not met their obligations under the Varkiza Agreement. It is probable they saw that they would not win a clear victory in the elections. Conservative parties, as a result, won a resounding victory since their only opponents were the frangemented centre and liberals. The King returned to power.
Communist Insurgency
The Communists once they saw that they would not gain power through elections, began a bloody guerilla campaign that amounted to a Civil War which tore the country apart. The EAM/ELAS response to the elections was to form the Democratic Army and open the 'third round' of the Civil War, mainly by guerrila operations in the mountains. The Government responded by making the Communist Party of Greece (KKE) illegal. (It was not legalized again until 1974). ELAS lkeader, Markos Vafiadis, became leader of the guerilla units of the Communist Party of Greece KKE Juky 1946). The DAG was on a much smaller scale than during the War when they recruited anti-NAZIs . Noiw it was nostly Comminisys or the hard-core left that came forward. ELAS had something like 60,000 combatants during the German occuoation. DAG had eas able to vfiekd less than half that number. The Goverment had a much larger force. The DAG guerilla army 20-30,000 operaing in the countryside wa more than capable of disruoting the econmy and preventing a post-War recovery. And the border with Tito's Communist Yugoslavia menat that they had safehavens and sources of resupply.
British Role
The British were weakened by nearly 6 years of War and were unable to fully support the non-communists. Britain which had shouldered enormous costs during the War was essentially a bankrupt nation. Very substantial costs followed the War such as the occupation of Germany and contining respnsibilities in Cyprus, Greece, Palestine, and other countries. This is one reason why rationing hd to be continued in Britain after the War. This proved extremely unpopular with serious domestic political consequences. The British also turned to rightest elements in Greece, including some who had collaborated with the Germans. Soon some members of the anti-NAZI Resistance movement were being arrested. The British who had ekected a socialist Government were not recovering from the War ecoinomically. They asked for American assistance.
United States Role
With its many other commitments and flagging economy, the burden of supporting the Greek Government's battle against DAG coulkd nir be contunued. President Truman agreed committed to taking over Britain's role. The United States began supplying military equipment and economic aid to the Greek Government. Truman generalized his policy of support for the Greek government as the Truman Doctrine. It was basically a policy of containment round the world. Initially it was focussed on Greece and Turkey. The vUnited States provided Greece $0.4 milliom (1948 dollars) in supplies. Military advisers to train the Greek army and the Greek security forces also provided. There was a two-pronged American strategy. The Truman Doctrine offered weapons and support for countries fighting Communist insurgencies. The Marshall Plan offered economic assistance to countries atte,ting to revilalize war-torn economies. The Marshall Plan program was once of the most magnaamous gestures in Europdan history. The program was not only open to the principal Americana llies (Britain and France), but occupied countries including Greece. Even more importantly it was offered to Germany, the country responsible for much of the destruction and killing. In addition, the Soviet Union and the countries it occupied at the end of World War II were invited to participate. Stalin rejected the offer, despite the enormous needs of the Russian people. The United States beginning in 1947 began supplying arms to the Greek Government. The Americans helped construct damaged infrastructure like air fields, bridges, docks, railways and communication networks.
Fighting (1946-49)
Fighting in the Civil War continued for 4 years. The Democratic Arny of Greece was the reformed ELAS forces. Of course it had nothing to do with democracy, it was forned to bciircumvent the results of the actual ddemocratib 1946 ekdctions. Communists like to use the term democratic, but no Communist Goverment permits demicratic ekldctioins and demovratuc civil librty safe guards. The DAG under Vafiadis
conducted a low-intensity small-scale hit and run attacks, basically to disrupt the economy, avoiding engagemnents with the larger Government forces. KKE leader Nikolaos Zachariadis was disatisfied with the DAG progress in the War. With American aid he concluded that the Government woukd not fall. He removed Vafiadis as the DAG commander (mid-1947). The new commander changed tactics from hit-and-run guerilla actions to actual engagemnents with Government forces. The turning point of the Civil War was the Battle of Konitsa (December 24, 1947-January 1948). This was an initiative to capture the northwestern Greek town of Konitsa. KKE wanted to seize a town which could be used as a capital for the Provisional 'Democratic' Government. It was part of DAG's Operation Limnes (Lakes) which was an effory to seize a Greek town of some size. This proved a fundammental error. Dag forces did not have the men or fire poweer to win an opoen battle with the Greek Army. The Government drove DAG back to the northern border areas with Yugoslavia. Here there mountainous sanctuaries and supplies provided from Yugoslavia made it difficult for the Givernmenbt fiorces to achieve a final victory. .
Field Marshal Alexander Papagos (Αλέξανδρος Παπάγος) was a respected Greek military commander. He was appointed minister of war (1935) and then army chief of staff (1936). He led the Greek Army in World War II, beating back the Italian invasion (1940), but unable to withstand the night of the Whermacht (1941). He was a strong royalist and led the military resistance to the Communist insurgency. His premiership was largely defined by the Cold War. He readily accepted Americn economic and military assiostance. He permutted American military bases on Greek territory. He helped establish a powerful and staunchly anti-communist security apparatus. Notably the Communist commander and Stalinist Nikos Ploumpidis was executed by military firing squad. He resigned from the military (1950) and formed the conservative Greek Rally party. He was supported by the Americans who viewed him as the alternative to the right-wing parties and military elements which included fascists and unrepentent Nazi collaborators. As a result of the electoral success of Greek Rally Party, he was chosen prime minister and served until his death (1955).
The Greek economy was devestated by the World War II Axis occupation. The initial physical damage was limited, because the German viuctories were so rapid. It was the Axis policies during the occupation that did much of the economic damage along with the resistance and anti-resistance operations. The ELAS Communist Guerrillas gained control of much of ther countryside. And this was the situation at the time of liberation (September 1944). ELAS was reorhganized as DAG under the control of the Greek Communist Psrty (KKE) to fight a Civil War after the Communisdts did poorly in the first electiion after liberatiin (1946). The economy was further damaged by the ensuing Communist inspired Civil War. Efforts to revitalize the economy were difficult during the Civil War. In fact, the DAG strategy was to conduct small scale attacks, in opart to dange the economy and prevebt any economic recovery. DAG hoped that the resulting econmomic paralysis would increase support for the KKE. The British and eventually the Americans supported the royalists. The insuing Greek Civil War raged (1944-49) and added to the damaged during the World War II Axis occupation, especially in rural areas. It was not just the physical damage. No one was going to make important efforts to build business or make major investments as long as there was a belief that the Communists were going to prevail. As a result, not only was very little progress made repairing the economy. Greece arguably faced the most difficult recovery in all of non-Comminist Europe. As one author explians it, "It was very difficult for Greece to make an economic progress during the Civil War. Basically it had twenty to thirty thousand organized terrorist operating in the country. The terrorists could not hope to win but they could disrupt any progress. The Civil War was terminated when the General Secretary of the Communist Party KKE, Zachariadis, became deluded that the terrorist could match the national army in military confrontations. However even after the military defeat of the terrorist there was a legacy that plagued Greece politics for decades." [Watkins] Living standardards remined far below pre-War levels. Per capita income levels were below that of the poorer European countries as well as the Third World countries like Mexico. Only American food aid prevented another terrible famine. Amerivan military and economic aid as part of the Truman Dictrine meant that DAG initial hit and run tactics were not proving effective. When FAg shidted to oopen conat, the superioir Greek Army defaeted DAG, driviung them to border areas.
Soviet-Yugoslav Split (1948)
Stalin in the end kept to his agreement with Churchill. He did not provide direct support to the Communist forces. We are not entirely sure wghy. It relationship with Tito msy hsve been a factor.
Yugoslavia became the first Communist state to break with the Soviets. Stalin sent Red Army units to the border. It looked for a while that Stalin might order the Red Army to launch a military invasion, but he never did so. The outcome was the Tito-Stalin rift. Soviet propaganda charged that Tito was "pursuing an unfriendly policy to the Soviet Union" and called Tito a Trotskyite. This was virtually the worst thing you could say about someone in the Soviet Empire. (Stalin had Trotsky killed--an ice pick through the skull.) This of course was not lost on Tito. Stalin cut off trade with Yugoslavia and encouraged dissent with the Yugoslav Communist Party. Stalin attempted to gain control of the Yugoslav Communist Party through an anti-Tito purge. This failed. The Soviets had the Yugoslav Communist Party expelled from the Cominform. The possibility of a Soviet invasion presented itself. Tito as a result sought a rapprochement with the West. And as part of that new effort, he shut down supply routes to DAG
Cease Fire (1949)
Yugoslavia had been DAG's primary soyurce of supply. When Tito stopped supplying DAG, the Greek Civil War came to a close (August 1949). The Greek National Army captured the last DAG stronghold in the mountains of northern Greece. The Communists finally in 1949 declared a cease fire. At the end of the fighting in 1949, the casualties of both sides were estimated at 50,000. There are chsrges of attrocities on both sides.
There were substantial numbers of political refugees resulting from the Greek Civil War. These were Communists or sympathisers of the defeated communist insurgency who fled the country (1949). The defeat of the Democratic Army of Greece (DSE) was followed by the evacuation of the Communist Party of Greece (KKE) to Tashkent. In the aftermath, thousands of people fled or were evacuated fron northern Greece. Some estimates are substantially higher. There are varying estimates, but probanly more than 0.1 million Greeks left or were removed from the country. This included large numbers of children. The precise number is unknown, but may have exceeded 1/3 of the total. Some of the children were the relatives of the Communist insurgents. Many others simply lived in Communist controlled villages and were taken over the border as the Greek National Army advanced. This seems to have been most especially pronounced in Macedonian villages where the people distrusted the Greek Army. The evacuation of children without their parents was an organized effort undertaken by the KKE. Most of the children were taken over the border into Albania and Yugoslavia. From there casmps were set up throught the East Bloc (Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and Yigoslavia). Schools were established and they were taught in Greek and or Macedonian, the host country language, and Russian. Some of the children were adopted by host country families. Some families were able to reach the West (Europe, Canada, and the United States). And some children were eventually repatriated to Greece.
Children were affected in a number of ways during the Greek Civil War. There were the obvious ways which occur during any conflict. Some children were injured and killed as a result of the fighting. As houses were destoyed, some children lost their homes. Others became refugees and if their parents were killed orphans. If just the father was killed, the mother had difficulty supporting the family. There is a fairly accurate assessment of the casualties, but assessments of the impact on children are more difficult to obtain. We have not yet found any assessments of the children so affected. Children became a major issue in the post-War era, primarily because of the forced removal of children by the Communists in the areas that they controlled. The Communist deny that the children were foricbly removed, but it is clear that this indeed occurred. What we are not sure of is who gave the orders, Moscow or the KKE. Queen Fredericka helped set up camps for abandoned children. They became another post-War issue. Many of the children were taken in by Greek-American families.
The United Nations was formally established after World War II (1945). Stalin was dubious, but Presidebt Roosevelt talked him into it. The organization was soon functioning. It made a major effort, but failed to solve the Palestinian issue (1947). It was ham strung, however, with Cold War issues. The United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) was active in Greece at the end of the War. he United Nations did not, however, play an important role in the Greek Civil War. It did get involved in child removal controversy. The removal of children was one of the most controversial issues if the War, Both sides were involved, but especially by the Communists. Some 30,000 children were forcefully removed by the Communist Demoicratic Army of Greece (DSE )from the areas they controlled [Barentzen, pp. 135–36.] Isn't interesting how the Communists like to use the term 'democratic', but want nothing to do with democracy once they seize power. The children were moved to East Bloc countries, mostly Yugoslavia. Other children outside od DSE control were moved for protection to special Greek camps. This was an idea conceived by Queen Frederica. The issue was widely reported in the international media, A United Nations Special Committee was formed to investigate. They ussued a report confirming that 'some children have in fact been forcibly removed'. [Barentzen, pp. 135–36] There were charges of DSE efforts to created Communust Janisaries. The Communists claimed the ptovuisiinal Greek Governebt was doing the same. Many of the children remnoved to Communist countries began to return to Greece as adults (1970s).
Sources
Barentzen, Lars. The'Paidomazoma' and the Queen's Camps.
Iatrides, John (ed.). Greece in the 1940s: a Nation in Crisis (Hanover:
University Press of New England, 1981).
Mazower, Mark. Inside Hitler's Greece: The Experience of Occupation, 1941-1944 (Yale University Press, 1993), 437p.
Zweiniger-Bargielowska, Ina. Austerity in Britain: Rationing, Controls, and Consumption 1939-1955 (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2000).
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