Figure 1.--This portrait of an Indian school boy was taken in the 19th century. We do not know the name of the school, but he wears a British-style uniform. The studio was Tho. A Rust, but the city is not indicated. One source says he was active in Allahabad and Mussoorie. Both cities are in northern India which explains the boy's cold weather uniform. Rust was one of the first important photographers in India. Curiously the size was 5.1 inch. This is sort of half way between a standard CDV and cabinet card. We do not yet know ebough about Indian photography to know how common this was.

We have very little chronological information about Indian education at this time. We have no information on education in ancient India. There presumably were schools. Whenever you have a written lsnguage, there has to e some kind of school. There were many different civilizations in India over time. The Mogols came the close to unifying India, but never quite completed the conquest of the south. As far as we know, all of tghese very different cultures followed the stanndard approach in most pre-modern civilizations of just offering formal education to a narrow elite. Perhaps our Indian readers will know more. Except for the elite, education in the Mogul Empire was offered by local mosques and ctemples and not the state. During the British Raj, modern schools were founded, but again these were schools for the elites and not for the common people. There were schools for British subjects in India as well as for Indians. Many if not all of the early schools had military-style uniforms. Schools for the Indians were opened to train the Indians the British needed to administer the Raj. This meant only a very limited number of people were educated. In addition there were schools operated by reigious groups, we believe associated with mosques and temples. They are important, however, because they trained the Indians who pursued the independence movement and governed independentb India. Also they laid the foundation for India's public school system. As far as we know, the public school system was founded by the new Indian Government after independence. This meant creating the second largest public education system in the world. Only China at about the same time began building a larger public school system.

Ancient India

We have little information on education in ancient India. The Indus River Valley civilization is the least known of the great river valley civilizations. There presumably were schools. Whenever you have a written language, there has to e some kind of school. We know more about subsequent civilizations on the sub-continent in ancient times. Schooling apopears to have largely developed around religious institutions. Our erliest information comes from the Vedic era (1500-600 BC). Teaching was based on the Vedas. This was a body of religious texts with ancient origins. They were composed in Sanskrit and are both the oldest Sanskrit literature and the oldest Hindu texts. The Vedas involved hymns, formulas, and incantations which were recited or chanted by priests and the students had to memorize. This was a pre-Hindu tradition to which Hindu texts and scriptures were gradually added. There is reason to believe that Vedic education was at one point more common than in most ancient civilizations, but became more restricted as the caste sysystem developed. One author describes monastic orders of education under the supervision of a guru rather than any kind of state education. [Blackwell, p. 90.] This appears to be how the elite educated their children. This seems to be closely tied into the developing Hindu religion. These monastic orders seems to have specialized in specialized education depending on the skills needed by different groups which tended to pursue inherited roles. [Prabhu, p. 24.] The gurus for the priestly (Brahmin) class focused on religion, philosophy, and related subjects. The warrior (Kshatriya) were trained in the martial arts and others aspects of warfare. The business (Vaishya) class were taught their trade and presumably i many cases mathematics. The vast peasant class were not educated. Budhism appeared in India (6th cenbtury BC). Secular Buddhist institutions developed as offshoots of the monasteries. These institutions tended to focus on pratical or applied learning such as medicine. [Prabhu, 249.] Some urban learning centers debelopoed (4th-2nd century BC). This included Taxila (in modern Pakistan) and Nalanda. Some were so important that they attracted foreign students. Subjects like Buddhist literature, logic, mathematics, and grammar were taught.

Medieval India

There were many different civilizations in India over time. The Mogols came the close to unifying India, but never quite completed the conquest of the south. As far as we know, all of these very different cultures followed the standard approach in most pre-modern civilizations of just offering formal education to a narrow elite. The Hindu associated guru appropach presumably dominted during this period. We know that India had a very sophisticated understanding of mathematics. This could have only come from some kind of school system. The modern system of Arabic numbers was develoed in India and briught to Europe via Arab scholsrship. While we know something of the Indian ssystem, we know little about vthe educational milleau in which it developed. The great Muslim scholar Alberuni (973�1048 AD), who visited the subcontint, descrived their sophisticated mathematics system.

Mogul Empire

Islamic education began in India with the foundatioin of the first Muslim kingdoms in northern India (13th century). The rulers varied in both their interest in education and toleration toward Hindus and other religions. Some promoted education. Others supressed Hindus so scholars fled. [Sharma and Sharma, p. 60.] This must have ffected Hindu schools. Except for the elite, education in the Mogul Empire was offered by local Islamic mosques and Hindu temples and not the state. The Mogul Empire was at times highly tolerant, accepting practice of other religions. Some emperors were, however, represive, but this led to the weakening of the Empire and emergence of of independent states in the south. It also eased the way for the Europeans expanding their influence.

The Raj

The British brioght modern education to India. During the British Raj, modern schools were founded, but again these were schools for the elites and not for the common people. The British to the extenbt they actually considered it, saw no advantage and huge expenses in founding a public school system in India. This is not surprising as the thought had also not occurred to native Indian rulers and even in Britain itself, authorities did not begin to build a public school system until well after many other European countries, especially the Germans had foubded publuc schools (1860s). There were schools for British subjects in India as well as for affluent Indians. Many if not all of the early schools had military-style uniforms. Schools for the Indians were opened to train the Indians the British needed to administer the Raj. This meant only a very limited number of people were educated as a proprtion of the overall population. In addition there were schools operated by reigious groups, we believe associated with Islamic mosques and Hindu temples. We are not sure about the curriculum. Of course the focus was on religion, but we are not sure to what extent secular subjects were taught such as mzthematics and science. This was a continuation of the existing system the Europeans encountered. Christian missionary groups founded many important schools. The British schools are important because they trained the Indians who pursued the independence movement and governed independent India. Also they laid the foundation for India's public school system. While the British did not launch a major public education system, they did leave India with a much more modern school system than existed when the Europeans found when they arrived. An estimated 20 percent of the pupulation was literate at the time of independence. While this was far below European standards, it was above literacy rates in the rest of Asia and literacy rates when the Eurooeans first arrived.

Independent India (1947- )

The Indian public school system was founded by the new national Government after independence (1947). The country's first prime minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, made this a priority. It was an enormous undertaking. It meant creating the second largest public education system in the world. Only China at about the same time began building a larger public school system. Maulana Azad was India's first education minister and He envisaged a vast public education system with a centralized curriculum controlled by the national government in Delhi. [Sripati and Thiruvengadam, p. 150.] This did not come to pass. India was simply too diverse, with vast cultural, linguistic, religious, and other differences, for a highly centralized education system. As a result, in independent India, the different states assumed responsibility for education, although the central governmrnt assisted with finance. The central government did assume responsibility for tertiary education, especially dealing with science and technology. The national government did set a range of national educatiional policies. Creating such a vast public school system required massive public investment. Unfortunately the national goivernment's propensity to pursue a socialist, statist approch to ecomomic developent resulted in economic failure. This severely lomiyted the resources available for public education. India's new leaders looked to the Soviet Union as an economic model. As a result, they were shocked to find that the economic boom they assumed a socialist model in independent India would produce, simply did not occur. Rather they presided over failed state projects and a stagnant economy. The government thus did not have the financial capability of adequately funding the massive new public education system they set out to create. The national Government first formulated a National Policy on Education (NPE) (1968) and revised them (1986). They reinforced the Programme of Action (POA) (1992). Free market economic reforms unleased the national economy (1990s). The resulting economic successes have increased the resources availavle for public education. The Government launched a number of important initatives (2008). Two of the most important were the District Primary Education Programme (DEEP) and India's initiative of Education for All (Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan--SSA). Another important effort was to selective schools (such as Navodaya Vidyalaya) in every district. Efforts were also made to promote female education, incourage inter-disciplinary research, and establish open universities. The NPE was a step toward establishing a National System of Education that promotes a degree of uniformity while allowing for regional education needs. An important element of the NPE was increased sopending. The spebding target was set at more than 6 percent of Gross Domestic Product. [India 2004, p. 208] This would require very substantial increases in spending. Indian authorities have given priority science and technology while recognizing that a mire comprehensive reform is needed. In addition to the publuic school system, there are private schools. These include secular schools on the British model as well as a wide range of religious schools. Some schools have been founded by Christian churches are similar to the secular private schools with a modest religioys education component. Schools are also sponsored by the major Indian religious groups, espically Hindus and Moslems. These schools also vary. Some are traditional schools with religion at the heart of the curiculum. These traditional schools are commonly attached to temples and mosques. Some are run as Indian schools were for centuries.

Sources

Blackwell, Fritz. India: A Global Studies Handbook (ABC-CLIO, 2004).

Prabhu, Joseph. "Educational Institutions and Philosophies, Traditional and Modern", Encyclopedia of India Vol. 2 (Thomson Gale: 2006).

Sharma, Ram Nath and Rajendra Kumar Sharma, History of Education in India/ By

Sripati, V. and Thiruvengadam, A.K. "India: Constitutional Amendment Making The Right to Education a Fundamental Right", International Journal of Constitutional Law Vol. 2, No. 1 (2004), pp. 148�158.

India 2004: A Reference Annual (53rd edition)

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Created: 1:52 PM 8/17/2011
Last updated: 6:24 AM 9/2/2011