Figure 1.--

At the time Saint Augustine arrived, the Anglo Saxons controlled most of southern England and were expanding north and west (late 6th century). The Anglo Saxon invaders had no central organization as Roman Britain had or as the Normans would institute after Hastings. They gradually colonised England northwards and westwards, pushing the native Britons to the western fringes of island. Thus Roman Britain was replaced by Anglo Saxon Britain, The Anglo-Saxon invaders formed several new kingdoms. The Anglii settlements evolved into the kingdoms of East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria. The Saxons settlements appeared to have founded the kingdoms of Sussex, Wessex, and Essex. The Jutes apprear to have predominated in Kent and the Isle of Wight. Wars between these kingdoms gradually resulted in the consolidation of three impotant kingdoms into Mercia, Northumbria and Wessex. War cointinued between these kingdoms as well as raids from the west and north, but they were stronger than the Romanized Britons and able to deal with these raiders. This was the England that the Vikings found when they began to raid. When the Viking insursions began, there was not coordinated Anglo-Saxon response. The Viking incursions culminated with a "Great Army" landing in East Anglia (865). It made wide territorial gains, and the kingdoms of Mercia and Northumbria had succumbed (by 875). Only Wessex survived the Viking onslaught. The Vikings while devestating large areas also played a role in the spread of commerce and the evolution of democracy in England.

Anglo-Saxon England

At the time Saint Augustine arrived, the Anglo Saxons controlled most of southern England and were expanding north and west (late 6th century). The Anglo Saxon invaders had no central organization as Roman Britain had or as the Normans would institute after Hastings. They gradually colonised England northwards and westwards, pushing the native Britons to the western fringes of island. Thus Roman Britain was replaced by Anglo Saxon Britain, The Anglo-Saxon invaders formed several new kingdoms. The Anglii settlements evolved into the kingdoms of East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria. The Saxons settlements appeared to have founded the kingdoms of Sussex, Wessex, and Essex. The Jutes apprear to have predominated in Kent and the Isle of Wight. Wars between these kingdoms gradually resulted in the consolidation of three impotant kingdoms into Mercia, Northumbria and Wessex. War cointinued between these kingdoms as well as raids from the west and north, but they were stronger than the Romanized Britons and able to deal with these raiders. This was the England that the Vikings found when they began to raid. The Anglo-Saxon invaders were not-yet Christianized. While they defeated the Christinized Britons, they eventually became Chritinized. The Church became the richest institution in the country and the only centralized institution. The Church also acquired prestige and political influence. Their wealth was in land and gold and silver jewellery, relics, and chalses hkld by the churches and manastaries. The Christianized Anglo-Saxon sttes fought among each other, but generally respected church property.

Initial Viking Encursions

The Norsemen were an un-Chritianized Germamic people that began raiding Christian Europe in the 8th century seeking plunder and booty. One account describes three Vijing ships appearing at Portland near Weymouth (789). They first struck Lindesfarne (793). There may have been earlier attacks, but this was the first recorded one. Lindisfarne was a revered monastary on an island off northern England. The Vikings wre attracted by the wealth accumulated in Chistian monastaries and churches and the fact that they were not protected by defenses and armed guards. The wealth they found was unimaginable to peole eeking out a hard scrable life in Scandinavia. The Vikings were not Christians and had no scruoles about attacking holy places. The attack on a holy place in particular struck fear struck terror in Anglo Saxon England. The plunder found there brought further attacks on England, Scotland, and Ireland. A raid on the Jarrow Monastary followed (794). When the Viking incursions began, there was no coordinated response by the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.

Mass Migration (750-1050 AD)

The attack on Lindisfarne was the opening event of what was to become the mass migration of the Scandinavian people throughou Europe. What began as plunder raids evolved into a mass migration seeking to settle better agricultural lands and trade centers. Norwegian and Danish Vikings settled the northern island off Scotland and then Iceland and Greenland, even reaching Labrador. Soon the Viking raids in England shifted from plubder raids to conquest and settlement. They conquered coastal France, even moving up the Seine to Paris. Normandy became a Viking provence, named after the north mem. Vijings eventually reached the Mediterranean. Swedish Vikings headed east carving about a kingdom in Russia and eventually reached the Black Sea..

Anglo-Saxon Resistance

Gradually the Viking raids increased in scale and the Vikings instead of raiding began settling areas along the eastern coast. Serious invasions began (about 835). A steadily growing Viking fleet brought more and more Vikings to England and they began to pose a real threat to the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. The Anglo-Saxons not only fought the Vikings, but attempted pay then off--the Danegeld. payment).

The Great Army (865)

The Viking incursions culminated with a "Great Army" landing in East Anglia (865). The Great Army was led by Ivar the Boneless and his brother, Halfdan. Both were sons of Ragnar Lodbrok who was killed during the fighting in Northumbria. Ivar took part of the Great Army to Ireland. Halfdan continued the conquest of English. Halfdan and many of his followers settled down in the area they conquered. The Great Army made wide territorial gains, and the kingdoms of Mercia and Northumbria had succumbed (by 875).

Wessex

A commander in the Great Army was not prepsred to settledown. Guthorm coveted Wessex, the last surviving Anglo-Saxon kingdom. Guthorm began a series of attacks on Wessex. and its king, a young man named Alfred. Wessex was the only Abhlo-Saxon jingdom to survive the Freat Army. The Wessex king was killed in the fighting. His younger brother Alfred inherited the crown, rather than his brother's sons. The Vikings then moved on Wessex in force. The area of Dnish control in northern and eastern England was known as the the Danelaw. Wessex survived in part by paying the Danegeld. The Vijings up the any when they refused to leave after arriving for the annual Danegeld patment (876). They in fact remained in Essex for 2 years. Fighting broke out. The Wessex Army was virtually destroyed (878). King Alfred fled into the remote Somerset marshes--the wesern-most reaches of England. He found refuge on the island of Athelney. This was the turning pointin English history. Had Wessex fallen, England would have become Norse. Here he eluded the Vikings and regrouped to counter attack. He recruited a new army from the men of southern England. Alfred in the same year surprised the Vikings at Ethandune (878). Although relatively little known, it was one of the most important battles in English history. Alfred's victory was commemorated by carving a night on a white horse on the hillside. Alfred signed a treaty wih the Vikings, the Treaty of Wedmore. This essentially split England, but Wessex was saved. The Vikings controlled the north and the Anglo-Saxon English the south. The country was split vby the Dane Line, essentially Watling Street, the Old Roman Road that bisected England from London to Chester. Alfred is the only English monarch honored by the appelage "Great". This is not only because of his military victory, important as it was, but because he began the reconquest of England. This was not done militarily. The primary weapon that Alfred used was the English language.

Danelaw

United England

Alfred the Great's grandson Eadred reigned over a united England (955). This was the first time England had been united since the Roman era. Eadred reigned over an increasingly centralized state.

King Aethelred the Unready

Saxon King Aethelred moved against what he preceived as the eroding Viking (Danish) presence in England. King Aethelred plundered the Viking occupied Isle of Man and parts of The Danelaw (1000). Aethelred married Emma, sister of Duke Richard of Normandy (1002). (And the great Aunt of the future Duke William.) Few details are available, but this presumably was a politically arranged marriage. Aethelred probably saw this as strengthening his position against the Vikings by a marriage alliance with the Normons, descended from a Norwegian viking dynasty. He proceeded to order the bloody massacre of Danish men in England. This included people related to Danish and Norwegiab Vikings. Among those slain were Danish King Svein Forkbeard's sister and his brother-in-law, Pallig. Svein raided along the southern and eastern coast (1003 and 1004). He returned to Denmark because of a famine in England (1005). Sevin subsequently continued to raid England for plundr and and collected large payments in silver as Danegeld.

Canute

King Svein returned to England with with his son Canute (1013). Canute is known as Knud in Denmark and Knut in Norway. Canute's grandfather was Harald Bluetooth and his great-grandfather was King Gorm. Svein this time he was not just interested in raiding. He was determined to conquer England. He landed in southern England, but moved north, making the Danelaw his first military objective. He reasoned that many people there were of Viking ancestry and would not only accept, but support Canute. Svein and Canute secured the Danelaw and soon threatened most of te rest of England. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle reported, "...all the nation regarded him as full king". King Aethelred was forced to fled to Normandy. When King Svein died, Aethelred returned to England and defeated the Viking Army. Canute fled to Denmark. He returned to England with a new army (1016). Canute prevailed at the Battle of Ashingdon (Ashingdown), defeating Edmund 'Ironside', Aethelred's eldest son and successor. Canute and Edmund agred to a truce under the Treaty of Olney. Canute receiced the Danelaw and the English Midlands. Edmund kept control of southern England, but died shortly after. Canute found then himself the the most powerful force in the country, but not the legitimate king of Englnd. In an attempt to merge the English and Viking dynastic lines, Canute married Aethelred's widow, Emma (1017). Emma was, however, not Anglo Saxon, but Norman. Her sons by King Aethelred remained safely in Normandy. Emma had two more children by Canute, Harthacnut and Gunhild. Canute was a Viking Christian and serious about his religion. In addition to Emma, Canute took a mistress--Aelfgifu. They had two additional sons, Harald (Harold) and Svein.

Renewed Viking Attacks

Another wave of Viking invaders targetted England. Ethelred the Unready was hard pressed to resist the new attacks.By the time of Ethelred's death (1016), the Viking warlord Cnut was in effective control of England.

Edward the Confessor

Canute's death keft England divided. Edward the Confessor was the legitimate king. He had grown up in Normandy because his father Aethelred the Unready was driven into exile. His relationshipnwith Duke William is a matter of historical debate. Edward was unable to exert his authority over competing earls. Edward was more concerned with religion than governing England. England was essentially divided again into competibng earldoms.

King Harold

The strongest earl proived to be Harold, Earl of East Anglia. Harold was Canute's illegitimate son. Harold through a comination of successful battles and astute marriage arrangements gained control over Wessex, making him the most powerful man in England, more powerful than King Edward. Edward died without a male heir (1066). Harold claimed the throne.

Last Viking Invasion

The Vikings when Edward the Confessor died saw an opportunity to seize the throne. Harold in southern England braced for a cross-channel invasion by William Duke of Normandy who also claimed the English crown. Norwegian Viking Harald III and Tostig (King Harold's brother) landed an impressive army in Yorkshire and seized York (1066). Upon hearing this, Harold marched his army north. He desisively defeated the Vikings at Stamford Bridge near York. He had, however little time to celebrate his victory. Harold was informedDuke William had landed an army in the south. Harold marched his army south in 13 days, an impressive achievement. This was a distance of some 240 miles.

Duke William

William was born in Falaise, Normandy in France (1028). His father was Robert II the Devil, Duke of Normandy (1008- ). His mother was Herleva (Arlette), Officer of the Household (about 1012- ). William became Duke of Normandy (1035). Normandy at the time was a French state established by the Norse (Vikings) and had a powerful army. One thing is known with certainty about Edward's time in Normandy, Duke William expected Edward to name him as his heir and he had a distant claim because Queen Emma (now the Queen Mother Emma) was William's great aunt. Harold Godwinson, Earl of Wessex, also spent time in Normandy after being ship wrecked. Again the historical record is unclear, but William claims that Harold pledged his alegiance. Duke William was thus enraged when after Edward's death that Harold seized the crown. He was the stringest force in the country and his claim was confirmed by the Witan, the Anglo-Saxona council of wise men. He married Matilda of Flanders (1053). They had 10 children: Robert II Curthose, Duke of Normandy (1054- ), Richard, Duke of Bernay (about 1055- ), Cecilia of Holy Trinity, Abbess of Caen (1056- ), Adeliza, Nun, (1055- ), William II Rufus, King of England (1056/60- ), Constance (1066- ), Adela, Countess of Blois (about 1067- ), Agatha (about 1064- ), Matilda, and Henry I Beauclerc, King of England (about 1068- ). William died at Hermentrube, Near Rouen, France (1087). Harold's claim to the English crown was disputed by William, Duke of Normandy, whose claim was even more tenuous than Harold's. The last major role the Vikings played in England was helping William seize the throne.

Battle of Hastings (1066)

Hastings was one of the most important battles in British history. After centuries of political division and wars between the Romanized Celts, Anglo-Saxon invaders, Vikings, and others, Harold had managed to created a unified English state. After defeating a Viking invasioin on the north, Harold learned that Duke William was finally crossing the Channel, Harold rushed back south. The two armies met as Hastings. southeast of London (October 14, 1066). It was a fierce all day battle. Harold's army was tired, but larger and had the better field position. William's army was smaller, but better armed and desciplined. The Norman archers and calvalry proved the decisive force. Harold was killed in the fighting, an arrow piercing his eye. William became known as William the Conqueror. With the death of Harold and the defeat of his army, William was able to establish his authority throughout Saxon England. He was crowned William I in London on Christmas Day (1066)

Norman England

William after his victory at Hastings, moved to seize control of England. He was crowned king of England in Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day (1066). William completely subdued Saxon England in the following years (1072). He imposed continental Norman military Fedualism on Saxon England. William granted land to his followers in return for Feudal pledges of service and loyalty. He began the Domesday Book (1085) to understand just waht the resources of England were.

Impact

The Vikings while devestating large areas also played a role in the spread of commerce and the evolution of democracy in England. Important English institutions like the jury system are Viking in orugin. The Vikings also made an important contribution to the English language.

The English Language

Given the military success of the Vikings, one might have thought that the spoken language would have become Old Norse. Anglo-Saxon Old English certainly was affected by the Vikings Old Norse, but the language of England remained Old English and by the time of the Norman invasion, old Norse had largely disappeared from England.