Figure 1.--This wire service photograph was taken in Usulatan, El Salvador. Parents, older brothers and sisters, and other family members became combatants in the country's bloody civil war. The photograph of a leftist guerilla family was taken March 3, 1982.

Modern El Salvador was on the southern fringe of Mesoamerica and the Mayan cultural zone. Important tribes included the Pipil (related to the Aztecs), Pocomames and Lencas. The Spamish first landed at Meanguera Island in the Gulf of Fonseca. The Spanish conquest of the Native American tribes in El Salvador was conducted in conjunction with the conquest of the tribes in Guatemala. Spanish Admiral Andres Nino led an expedition south from Mexico and Guatemala (1522). Spanish Captain Pedro de Alvarado launched a campaign to conquer Cuscatlan (1524). His better-known cousin, Diego de Alvarado, founded San Salvador (1525). King Carlos I of Spain (Emperor Charles V) granted San Salvador the title of city (1546). Modern El Salvador during the Spanish colonial period was part of the Captaincy of Guatemala. It was for the most part a quiet backwater of the Spanish Empire. During the Napoleonic Wars in Europe, the criollo population as in other areas of the Spanish Empire in South and Central America began to act on long held grevences. Father Jose Matias Delgado rang the bells of La Merced Church in San Salvador calling for insurrection (1811). The people began to organize resistance to Spanish authorities. El Salvador and other Central Americans formally declared independence (1821). Mexico's short-term Emperor, Iturbide, folded in Central America to his Mexican Empire. There was from the beginning resistance in El Salvador. ElSalvador became a part of the United Provinces of Central America (1823). This Federation was composed of the five Central American states under Gen. Manuel Jose Arce. The Federation after a little more than a decade was disolved (1838). With the break up of the Federation, El Salvador and the other Central American states became independent (1838). This began a period of instability throughout the region. There were frequent revolutions and coups as well as constantly changing constitutions. Coffee was introduced as a commercial crop (mid-19th century). It proved very successful and, as a result, there was a substantial increase in population. The country today has the highest population density in Central America. Only after the turn-of-the 20 century was a degree of stability achieved. The United States intervened in Costa Rica and Nicaragua, but not in El Salvador. General Martinez seized control of the government (1931) and attempted to destroy the Communist Party and their supporters. He openly supported Fasists in Europe, but by the time of Pearl Harbor joined the other Latin American countries in U.S,-promoted hemispheric solidarity against the Axis. A left-wing military junta seized control of the government (1960). A more moderate military government replaced it (1961). An elected president, Julio Adalberto Rivera, was elected (1962). The country's tenous democratic institutions were unabke to deal with the conflict between consrvativs and the military and Cuban influence left wing insurgents (1970s). The success of the Sandistias in Nicaragua (1979) meant that the guerillas had access to arms and other support. The result was a vicious civil war (1980-92). An estimated 75,000 people died in the fighting and attacks by both sides on civilians. The two sides after extended negotiations finally signed peace accords ending the war (1992). As part of the agreement the military was brought under civilian control. The guerillas laid down their arms and were allowed to form a legal political party and participate in elections.

Pre-history

Migrant from Beringia passed through Central America on their way south to South America. Very little is known about that migrastion. There is no archeological evidence iof this migration. We often see eestimates (10,000-12,000 BP). It may have been even earlier, substantially erarlier. And there is somewhat it could have bee movement as sea as well as terestrial. The earliest evidence of humans in El Salvador are cave paintings that have been dated (6000 BC). These caves were found in the Department of Morazan, in northeastern El Salvador.

Amer-Indian Civilizations

Early civilizations

There were a series of Amer-Indian civilizations that developed. El Salvador and Honduras were the southern limit of the great Meso-American civilizations. The earliest known people in El Salvador were the Lenca people who built the first urban centers. The first major civilization was the the Olmecs. They were centered in southern Mexico and Guatemala but their influence extended into western El Salvador. Their pyramids and sculptures date from (2000 BC). The Olmec civilization disappeared (about 400 BC). The Mayan Empire rose from a Olmec foundation and like thevOlmecs extebnded ass far south as El Salvasdir and Honduras. .

The Maya

Modern El Salvador was on the southern fringe of Meso-America and the Mayan cultural zone. The huge 8 x 11 km Ilopango caldera is now one of El Salvador's largest lakes is located east of San Salvador. It has been the scene of massive eruptions. The latest was the massive Tierra Blanca Joven (TBJ) eruption produced widespread pyroclastic flows and devastated early Mayan cities (536) Some 100,000 peoople nmay haver been killed. It had severe weather impacts around the globe, killing many more. Important tribes in what is niw El Salvador included the Pipil (related to the Aztecs), Pocomames and Lencas. The most important was the Pipil people of Cuzcatlán, which means The Place of Precious Diamonds and Jewels. The Pipil were a Nahuatl-speaking people that occupied the central and western regions of modern El Salvador. The Lenca settled in the east of the country. The largest kingdom was Cuzcatlán. Cuzcatleco is used to refer to Salvadorans of Native American heritage. The Mayan civilization which reached El Salvador left impressive ruins such as Tazumal, Joya De Ceren, San Andres, Casa Blanca, Cihuatan, and Chalchuapa.

Spanish Conquest

The conquest of Central America is primarily the story of the conquest of the Maya states in northern Central America (1551–1697). There were, however, other tribes further south. Rodrigo de Bastidas established Spain's claim to the isthmus of Panama. He sailied along the Darién coast (March 1501). Christopher Columbus, on his fourth voyage, sailed along the Caribbean coast of Central America from the Bay of Honduras to Panama. The next forays to Central America were launched from the growing Spanish colony of Cuba. Vasco Núńez de Balboa was the firstv European to cross the Isthmus of Panama. Balboa claimed the Pacific Ocean and all the lands adjoining it for the Spanish Crown. The next Spanish expedition from Cuba on the Yucatán Peninsula looking for slaves to work the Cuban plantations as the Native American population on the island had been desimated. The focus of the Spanish, however, turned north to the Aztec Empire. After defeating the Aztecs, the Spanish turned their attention south. The Spanish Conquistadires reached what is niow El Salvador very quickly after conquering the Aztecs. The Spamish first landed at Meanguera Island in the Gulf of Fonseca. The Spanish conquest of the Native American tribes in El Salvador was conducted in conjunction with the conquest of the tribes in Guatemala. Spanish Admiral Andres Nino led an expedition south from Mexico and Guatemala (1522). Spanish Captain Pedro de Alvarado launched a campaign to conquer Cuscatlan (1524). His better-known cousin, Diego de Alvarado, founded San Salvador (1525).

Spanish Empire

What is now El Salvador became part of the Spanish Empire. King Carlos I of Spain (Emperor Charles V) granted San Salvador the title of city (1546). Modern El Salvador during the Spanish colonial period was part of the Captaincy of Guatemala, sometimes referred to as the Kingdom of Guatemala (Reino de Guatemala). This was created as an administrative division of New Spain, meaning primarily Mexio (1609). El Salvador was for the most part troughout the Spanish era a quiet backwater. The area comprising modern El Salvador was administered by the Mayor of Sonsonate. San Salvador was established as an intendancia during the last years of Spanish rule (1786).

War of Independence (1811-21)

During the Napoleonic Wars in Europe, the criollo population as in other areas of the Spanish Empire in South and Central America began to act on long held grevences. Spain was occupied by France and unable to support Royalists in the Empire. In addition, after Trafalgur (1805), the British Royal Navy totally controlld the seas. Te Brtish were anxious to promote indeoendence moveets in Latin America because it fee the region from the trade restriction imposed by the Spanish colonial authorities. Local elites throughout Latin America desired to control their own affairs and adopt policies benefiting themselves rather than Spain. The French and American revolutions also helped create apolitical enviroment laying the basis for independnce and an end to royal rule. The independence movemement in El Salvador began when Father Jose Matias Delgado rang the bells of La Merced Church in San Salvador calling for insurrection (1811). The people began to organize resistance to Spanish authorities. Royal authorities quickly supressed the revolt, arresting the independence leaders. Many served jail terms. Another insurrection flared (1814), but was also suppressed. Napoleon and the French were defeated in Europe (1814-15). The Congress of Vienna reimposed cinservative royal regimes in Europe (1815). The Royal Navy precebnted, however, any major effort by Spain to regain control of its American colonies. Te principal Royalist force was in Guatemala. . Spanish authorities there seeing that they coud no longer control the situation, finally capitulated (September 15, 1821). They signed the Acta de Independencia (Deed of Independence) which released all of the Captaincy of Guatemala (modern Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica and the Mexican state of Chiapas) from Spanish rule. El Salvador and other Central Americans formally declared independence.

Mexican Empire (1822-23)

Mexico's short-term Emperor, Iturbide, folded in Central America to his Mexican Empire. There was from the beginning resistance in El Salvador. The authorities of the former Spanish Central American provinces met n Guatemala City (early 1822). They voted to join the newly constituted First Mexican Empire led by gustín de Iturbide (early 1822). El Salvador resisted, preferring autonomy for the Central American countries. Iturbide ordered a Mexican Army force to march across Guatemala and enter San Salvador, suppressing resistance to his new empire. Soon after, however, Emperor Iturbide fell from power in Mexico (March 1823). The Mexican Army force in San Salvador returned to Mexico.

Central America (1823-41)

After Emperor Iturbide fell from power, authorities in the CetralAmerican provinces rescined their commitment to unite with Mexico. They decided to form a federal union. It is at this time that Chiapas permanently (southernMeico bordering Guatemka) decided to permanently join Mexico. El Salvador joined Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua in the Federal Republic of Central America/United Provinces of Central America (1823). This Federation was composed of the five Central American states under Gen. Manuel Jose Arce. The Federation era proved to be a turbulent period. After a little more than a decade the Federation was disolved (1838). When the Federal Republic of Central America was permanently dissolved (1841), El Salvador maintained its own government until it joined Honduras and Nicaragua in 1896 to form the Greater Republic of Central America, which later dissolved (1898).

Independence (mid- and late-19th century)

With the break up of the Federation, El Salvador and the other Central American states became independent (1838). This began a period of instability throughout the region. El Salvador emerged as a liberal state dominated by a landed oligarchy who controlled both the both political system and the economy. This was similar to the rest of CentraL America abd rooted in the Spanish colonial system. This was essentially economic and social inequality and political authoritarianism. Attempting to graft on a liberal state on this base consisging of a virtually uneducated peasantry was a percription for disaster. There were frequent revolutions and coups as well as constantly changing constitutions. Coffee was introduced as a commercial crop (mid-19th century). It proved very successful and, as a result, there was a substantial increase in population. The country would come to be called the Coffee Republic. The country today has the highest population density in Central America. As an independent country, a series of presidents drawn from the Salvadoran oligarchy pursued policies to maintain the oligarchy's hold on power. Theywere nominally liberal, but very conservtive and electd by the ruling oligarhy. They promoted coffee as the country's principal export crop. They helped develop the country's infrastructure (railroads and port facilities) to support the coffee economy. The oligarghy moved to eliminate the communal landholdings, an inheritance of Spanish colonial policies. This enabled the oligarchy to increase coffee production, but left the rural peasabtry (campesinos) landless and less able to produce food. Anti-vagrancy laws forced the displaced campesinos and other rural residents to work on the coffee plantations at low wages.

Stability (early-20th century)

Only after the turn-of-the 20 century was a degree of stability achieved. The National Guard was created as a rural police force (1912). The United States intervened in Costa Rica and Nicaragua, but not in El Salvador. General Martinez seized control of the government (1931) and attempted to destroy the Communist Party and their supporters. He openly supported Fasists in Europe.

Rural Discontent (1930-32)

El Salvador like much of Latin America was adversely affected by the Depressuion which weakened export markets, especially falling coffee prices. Farabundo Martí helped found the Communist Party of Central America. He also help found a Communist alternative to the Red Cross which was called International Red Aid. Their goal was to assist the poor and underprivileged Salvadorans suffering from the economic distress reulting from the Depression. Marti and his associayes like may in America and Europe were convinced that Marxist-Leninist ideology provided an answer to the problems of capitalism. Of course the economic system operating in El Salvador could hrdly be called capitalism. Mari was a Communist, but by most accounts was not a Stalinist. At the time many like Marti saw the Soviet Union as a great success compared to the Depression -plagued capitalist countries. This was also a common impression among university students The Government exiled Marti (December 1930) because he was vbecoming a popular figure. He was spoken of as a possible presidntial candidate. Arturo Araujo won the presidential electio (1931). Martí returned to El Salvador and working with Alfonso Luna and Mario Zapata began a revolutionary movement among peasant farmers. General Martinez seized power in a coup (1931). He lunched a brutal campaign to supress rural disciontent (December 1931). This resulted in a Peasant Uprising led by Farabundo Martí and Abel Cuenca, and joined by university students Alfonso Luna and Mario Zapata (February 1932). Te central action was the military killing of some 30,000 peope in what was meant to be a 'peaceful' meeting (1932). There had been violence before in rural El Salvador, but nothing of this order. Most of those killed were Native American campesinos. There are confklicting detais, but La Matanza (The Massacre) as it came to be called is generally seen as aragic over-reaction by the military. Cuenca was the only one of the leaders to survive. The well-armed militry killed tens of thousands of peasants. There is not precise account iof the numbers killed. The peasant uprising against General Martínez was thus crushed by the Salvadoran military 10 days after it had begun. General Martinez after aro-forma hearing ordered Martí shot. None of the peasants involved and probably Marti himself were aware at the time that the Communist Soviet Govermnent was engaded in Ukranian genocide, starving te pesantry so the Soviet Government could seize their land.

World War II (1939-45)

President Martinez at the beginning of the War was sympathetic to the Germans, as was the case in several other Latin American regimes. Martinez was presumably attracted by the authortariab and anti-Communist stace of European Fascism. And the population, as was the case throughout South and Central America. had a largely anti-Semetic attitude. While President Marinez was openly suportive of the Germans and Italians, with Pacific coast, he was not in a position to offer any assistance to them. U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt had from an early point of his administration, announced the Good Neighbor Policy (1934). An element in that policy was non-interference in the internal affais of Latin American countries. This changed with the outbreak of the War. The Roosevelt administration pushed for “Pan American Solidarity”. Given that several Latin American governments, and not just El Salvador, were pro-Axis, this required the Administration to do just what it had pledged not to do. Not only was Martinez pro-Axis, but it took 3 years for the United States to recognize his government. The United States pushed Latin American governments to move against Axis agents. This was a somewhat ham-fisted efforted as the United states was asking Latin American countries to deport German nationals which in some cases included German Jewish refugees. The American pressure worked. Martinez shifted his policies and moved against Axis agents. He shut down a NAZI radio station and associated presses. Only a few days after Pearl Harbor, El Salvador declared war on the Axis countries (1941). Inprobably, El Salvador played a role in The Holocaust. A Salvadoran diplomat was responsible for saving about 30,000 Jews in NAZI-occupied Europe.

Post-War Developments (1945-60)

Soccer War (1969)

El Salvador's dense poplation has made for tensions with lightly populated neighboring Honduras. Landless Salvadoran campesinos migrated to to less densely populated Honduras, usually illgally. There they began farming as squatters on unused or underutilized land. This was the principal cause of the so-called Soccer War (1969). Honduras fiorcibly expeled Salvadiorans. Some some 130,000 Salvadorans were expelled or fled before the Honduran Army reached them.

Political Strife and Civil War (1960-92)

A left-wing military junta seized control of the government (1960). A more moderate military government replaced it (1961). An elected president, Julio Adalberto Rivera, was elected (1962). The country's tenous democratic institutions were unable to moderate the conflict between consrvatives and the military on one side and Cuban influenced left-wing insurgents on the other side (1970s). Cuba and El Salvador were very different. Cuba had been one of the mot prosperous Latin American countries before Castro whie El Salvador was one of the poorest. There is a tendency throughout Ltin America to glorify the Cuban Revolutiion despite its abject failure. Salvadoran society was marred by gross inequality. A small, wealthy elite dominated the government and owned much iof the land. Most of the population lived in poverty. Marxists guerrillas commited to the same dead end Communist ideology that cripples Cuba launced an insurection. The success of the Sandistias in Nicaragua (1979) meant that the guerillas had access to arms and other support. The result was a vicious civil war (1980-92). An estimated 75,000 people died in the fighting and attacks by both sides on civilians. Damage to the economy my have reached $2 billion. The two sides after extended negotiations finally signed peace accords ending the war (1992). As part of the agreement the military was brought under civilian control. The guerillas laid down their arms and were allowed to form a legal political party and participate in elections.

Post-Civil War El Salvador

The United Nations-brokered peace agreement ended the civil war (1992), but peace has not broughtprosperity to El Salvador. As the country began to recover, it was hit by a series of devesating natural disasters. Hurricane Mitch hit El Salvador (1998). This was followed by deadly earthquakes (2001). These left more than 1,200 people dead and an estimated million people homeless. The Salvadoran economy is heavily dependent on remitances from Salvadoreans working in the United States, inclusing many illegal aliens. The impact of poverty, civil war, socialist propaganda, unemployment, poor education, natural disasters, drug usage, and the resulting dislocations and social strife have had a debiklitating impact on Salvdoran society. Today El Salvador is one of the most crime-ridden countries in the world. Americas. Violent street gangs, known as 'maras'", dominate large areas of San Salvador and other Salvadoran cities. President Saca described his country's crime problem as a 'regional problem that requires regional solutions'. One of El Salvador's most notorious crime groups was founded by Salvadoran immigrants in the Umnited States(1980s). S. El Salvador reports one of the world's highest murder rates--71 muders per 100,000 residents.

Created: 5:48 AM 11/23/2011
Last updated: 6:08 AM 5/25/2023