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The feats of the Spanish Conquistadores are some of the most dramatic accounts in history. The conquest of Peru is one of these epic feats. Here we can not begin to do justice to the story other than outline it for the casual reder. A great empire was destroyed by a handfull of Spanish adventurers led by an obscure, illiterate commander who grew up illigitimate and poor. Franciso Pizarro landed on the Pacific coast of South America with a force of only 167 soldiers. The Incas had constructed a great empire streaching from modern day Ecuador south to Chile. The Incas had not yet developed technologies common in the West such as metal tools, the wheel, and a written language, but they had developed a rich culture and agriculture which in many ways was more productve than modern Peruvian agriculture. The Inca Empire fielded vast armies and constructed powerful fortifications. Pizarro knew relatively little about the Inca, but he considered Cortez's strategy in Mexico as had decided to persue a similar approch. Pizarro on arriving in the Inca Empire sent message to the Inca Emeror Atahualpa and like Cortez in Mexico managedt take him prisoner and destroy a great empire. Pizarro was able to succeed with even a smaller force than Cortez. As in Mexico, the story is one of courage and audacity mingled with avarice, treachery, and crulty and stands in sharp contrast to that of North America where colonization was largely based on the desire for religious expression and land to farm. The gold and silver from Peru combined with that from Mexico turned Spain with its powerful army into a European super power. Ironically the most significant aspect of the Conquest may have been the introduction of the lowly potato to Europe.
Spain for most of European hostory has been a poor country, often a backwater located as it is in the Atlantic fringe. In Roman times it was espcially important for its mines. Much of the Iberian Peninsula is unsuitable for agriculture. Rain is sparse and the land heavily corrugated. At a time when agriculture was the primary producer of wealth, this left Spain and its people poor. Spain at the beginning of the 16th century, however, suddenly became the most powerful country in Europe. [Wells. p. 658.] Spain had finally after several centuries achieved the Reconquista. The Reconquista had sharpened Spain's martial skills. The marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella had united the two major Spanish kingdoms. ith Europe's most powerful army, Spain desired to expand. There was, however, Muslim kingdoms to the south across the Straits of Gibralter and the French kingdom to the north across the Pyranes that were able to resist even the Spanish army. This left maritime expansion as the only realistic outlet for Spanish expansionsim. And this expansion brought Spain emense wealth in gold and silver, first from Mexico and then from Peru. The vast riche plundered from native American allowied Spain for a brief period to dominate Europe.
Francisco Pizarro was one of the most renowned Spanish conquistador who led the Spanish in their conquest of the Inca Empire. He ws born in Trujillo. He was the illegitimate son of a Spanish gentleman (minor nobel). Little is known of his childhood. Pizarro grew up in povrty and was a swinhered as a boy. He was not schooled and like many with his background illiterate. He decided to seek his fortune with Ojeda in the New World (1510). He arrived in Hispaniola and then joined an expedition led by Nuñez de Balboa, serving as his chief lieutenant. The expedition crossed the Istmus of Panama and were the first Europeans to see the Pacific from the New World (1513). Pizarro settled in Panama (1519) where he led a prosperous life compared to his early life in Spain.
Spanish sailors returned to Peru with rumors of a rich and powerful empire south of Panama. After hearing rumors of a empire of vast wealth to the south of Panama, Pizarro formed an association with Diego de Almagro, Ferando de Luque, and others to explore the Pacific coast of
South America and conquer any important native kingdom they may find there. De Luque was a priest who played an important role in obtaining funds. The parthners organised three private expeditions in the conquistador tradition (1522, 1524, and 1526). These expditions encountered great difficulties because of the lack of understanding of local conditions and marine currents. The first expedition reached the San Juan River, the coastal boundary between modern Ecuador and Colombia, but the expedition brought no tangible gain. The second expedition penetrated further south (1526-28). Pizarro explored the swampy coast of norther Ecuador and moved south. He reached a northern outpost of the Inca Empire, Tumbez. Here he acquired three Inca youths to train as interpreters. His pilot, Bartolomé Ruiz, continued further south, crossing the equator and then returned with reports of rich realms to the south.
Pizarro with the knowledge and information he had collected traveled to Spain to seek assistance an royal authorizaion (1528). Emperor Charles V granted Pizarro and his associates permission, but the arrangement meant that most of the profits of the enterprise would go to the royal treasury. Pizarro returned to Panama with a contract, a capitulacione. Charles named him the Governor of Peru, and ennobled 13 associates.
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The Incas were one of the great naive American civilizations of the Americas. Some writers romanticize the Incas and other native American peoples. Their achievments were remarkable, but they were a s neolithical civilization, perhaps 2-3 millenia behind the technology of Europe and Asia, comparable to pre-dynastic Egypt or the Simerians. [Wells, p. 656.] The interesting question is why the technology of native Americans was so retarded. We have never noted a fully satisfying assessment of this question. Surely a primary factor was the total isolation of the Americas. There was o Silk Road connecting America with Europe or Asia or even connecting the two great civilizations within the Americas. With a capital located high in the andes at Cuzco in modern Peru, the Inca carved out a vast empire streaching falong the Pacific coast of South America from Ecuador south to central Chile. The Empire included land of great climatic and geographical extremes. There coastal deserts where it almost never rained. The Atacama Desert is the dryest on earth. The Andes is one of the highest mountain ranges in the world with peaks towering above 22,000 feet. The eastern slopes of the Andes descend into steamy Amazonian rain forests. A contemprary Spanish author considered these areas uninhabitable. [Pedro Cieza de León] The Inca eaked arable land out of precipitous slopes by teracing it. The coastal desert was made arable by an extensive irrigation system. These technically advanced system produced food for a population of an estimated 12 million people. Some areas cultivated by the Inca were more profuctive than in modern Peru.
The Inca economic system was a form of pure state socialism. No money existed in the Empire. Nobels paid their retainers in clothing and food. Peasants contributed their labor as a form of taxation. The Inca also constructed a vast road network streaching 10,000-miles and radiating out from Cuzco. Despite these technological refinements, the Inca had no written language. They did have a systm of colored and knotted ropes called a quipu to maintain records. While the Inca had no metal tools, they did refine silver and god which they fashioned into beautiful jewelry and objects, often for religious purposes. The Inca in contrast to the spanish admired silver and gold for its beauty, not for its monetary value. Gold was seen as the "sweat of the sun" and silver as the "tears of the moon". The Inca religion ws centered on the Sun God. The Inca believed that the Sun God had entrusted gold and silver with them for safekeeping. All the gold and silver of the Empire belonged to the Emperor or Inca. (The term is used for both the emperor and the people.) Gold and silver was used to fashion jewlery and decorative objects for palaces and temples and to reward loyal retainers. Most of the Inca gold came from nuggets and flakes in streams and rivers running down from the mountains. The Inca conquered many other cultures in building their empire. One of those cultures were the Chimu, a costal people who had developed great skill in metal working. Most of the magificent Inca gold and silver objects have been lost because the Spanish smeted them down for shipment back to Spain.
The vast Inca Empire was completly unknown to Europeans. Pizarro had managed to learn some sketchy details. Civil war had weakened the Empire after the death of Huyana Capac (1525). His two sons, half brothers Huascar and Atahualpa, struggled for control. Huáscar was selected by the court elite in Cuzco. Atahualpa controlled much of the army and possed newly conquered northern regions (modern Ecuador and parts of Columbia). This set in process a civil war between the two half brothers . The war was btterly fought, causing great dame to the economy and important cities. Large numbers of people were killed in the fighting or died as a result of the destruction. Only months before Pizzaro arrived, Atahualpa's army finally decisively defeated Huáscar's army. Atahualpa captured Huáscar and had him executed.
Pizarro returned to Panama with the royal warrant. Almagro was upset when he learned that much of their plunder would go to the royal treasury and that Pizarro had been named governor. Pizarro had succeeded in obtaining what Cortez never had, royal authorization.
Pizarro sailed from Panama to Tumbez with 180 men and landed at Tumbes (late 1532). This was even a smaller force than thatof Cortez in Mexico. Pizarro learned civil war and decided to use it to his advantage. Also an epedemic of smallpox was sweeping the empire. It was the epedemic that killed Huayna Capac and his heir apparent, launching the civil war. Pizarro moved inland, ascending the Andes. He dispatched messages to Atahualpa.
Atahualpa first viewed the reports of the strangers as only a minor curiosity. They did not understand the danger posed by the Spanish or the potential of their weapons.
Pizzaro finally encountered Atahualpa at Cajamarca. Pizarro professed friendship, but prepared a trap. It is unclear why Atahualpa exposed himself to the Spanish. He may have been intreagued by the reports of the strangers. He must have felt himself safe surrounded by retainers and with a substantial military force at hand. He apparently felt that the Spanish simply were a small band of raiders and could be easily dealt with. Atatahlpa enter the enclosed square with great formality, richly adorned, and surronded by large numbers of retainers. One account relates, "First came a squadron of Indians dressed in a livery of different colors, like a chessboard. They advanced, removing the straws from the ground and sweeping the road. Next came three squadrons in different dresses, dancing and singing. Then came a number of men
with armor, large metal plates, and crowns of gold and silver. Among them was Atahualpa in a litter lined with plumes of macaws' feathers of many colors and adorned with plates of gold and silver. Many Indians carried it on their shoulders on high . . ." [De Xeres] Father Friar Vicente de Valverde with Pizarros consent approached Athualpa with a cross in one hand and the Bible in the other.
He told Atahualpa "I am a priest of God, and I teach Christians the things of God, and in like manner I come to teach you. What I teach is that which God says to us in this Book. Therefore, on the part of God and of the Christians, I beseech you to be their friend, for such is God's will,
and it will be for your good. Go and speak to the Governor [Pizarro], who waits for you."
Atahualpa who had never seen a book before asked to see the priest's Bible. Father Vicente handed it to him without opening it. Atahualpa did not know how to open it and angily struck the priest when he attmpted to open it for him. He then opened, but showed little interest in the writing, certainly not undertanding that it was writing because the Inca hd no written language themselves. He then tossed the Bible aside and complained about the behavior of Pizarro and his men. Next Pizzarro approached with only four men at his side. He surprised Atahualpa and gave the signal, "Santiago y a ellos!" The guns were fired off, the trumpets were sounded, and the troops and calvary attacked. The natives attending Atahualpa drew back in
in terror, especially of the Spanish horses, such large animals were unknow in the Americas. The natives broke down part of a wall in an attempt to escape. Most were put to the sword.
Pizarro still held Atahualpa, but was unable to pull him down from the high litter on which he was carried until his litter barriers, important officials, were killed. Despite the slaughter, the natives did not attack the Spanish. The Spanish tore off Atahualpa's robes as they pulled him away. Atahaulpa was shocked and disconsolate, not yet fulling understaning that he had been dispossessed of his majesty. H now sat on the ground instead of a high litter and his throne and kingdom gone.Later Atahualpa ws provided clothes and Pizarro came to see him. He told Atahualpa, "Do not take it as an insult that you have been defeated and taken prisoner, for with the Christians who come with me, though so few in number, I have conquered greater kingdoms than yours, and have defeated other more powerful lords than you, imposing upon them the dominion of the Emperor, whose vassal I am, and who is King of Spain and of the universal world. We come to conquer this land by his command, that all may come to a knowledge of God, and of His Holy Catholic Faith . . ." [De Xeres] Pizarro held Atahualpa prioner thus preventing an Inca attack, the same tactic used by Cortez in Mexico.
Atahualpa was afraid that Pizarro would have him killed. He offered Pizarro a great quanity of god and silver in excange fr his release. Pizarro asked him, "How much can you give, and in what time?" Atahualpa replied, "I will give gold enough to fill a room twenty-two feet long and seventeen wide, up to a white line which is halfway up the wall." The height was that of a man's stature and a half. Atahualpa told Pizzaro that up to that mark, he would fill the room with different kinds of golden vessels, such as jars, pots, vases, besides lumps and other pieces. As for silver, he said he would fill the whole chamber with it twice and he offered to do itin 2 months. Pizarro allowed to dispatch messengers to this affect and assured him that he was in no danger. Soon Atthuapa's family arrived with some gold and silver and gradually the rooms began to fill up. The treasure ws stunning, tons of gold and other precious objects. Most of the Inca gold was in the distant capital of Cuzco. Pizarro was displeased with the rate at which the gold arrived and accused Atahualpa of conspircy. Pizarro dispatched three soldiers to Cuzco (early 1533 ) to remove the magnificent gold and silver ornaments from Coricancha (the 'Gold Courtyard'). The final treasure totaled 13,420 pounds of gold and 26,000 pounds of silver.
A local chief seeking Pizarro's favor informed him that Atahualpa had secretly ordered a great army be formed and that army commanded by Lluminabi was near Cajamarca. Pizaaro who never intended to relase Atahualpa from the beginning, confronted his prisoner. "What treason is this that you have prepared for me? For me who have treated you with honor, like a brother, and have trusted in your words!" Atahualpa denied that he was engagd in such a plot. Pizarro's partners and officers were against releasing Atahualpa and insisted that he be executed. They feared that he could rally his demoralised armies. Pizarro became convinced of the threat Atahualpa posed. Pizzaro with the approval of his officers sentenced Atahualpa to death by burning,unless he became a Christian. He ascented to this and was baptised by Fathger Vicente after which he was killed by garote. Spanish sources report that Atahualpa "died with great fortitude, and without showing any feeling ..." [De Xeres]
Pizarro next moved on Cuzco seeking to establish his authority by taking the capital and hoping large quantities of gold and silver still existed there. Pizarro appointed Huáscar's brother, Manco Capac, as a puppet Inca. The selection of Manco was a deft choice. There was no way of appeasing Atahualpa's suporters, but the Manco ws acceptable to Huazcar's partisans. This brought Pizarro native allies. Given their small numbers and lack of knowledge of local conditions, natives allies were critical. This hadproven a decisive factor with Cortez in Mexico and was also important for Pizaro in Peru. upporters. ruler of the Inca Empire. He then It took Pizarro almost a year after capturing Atahualpa to reach Cuzco. Pizarro had to fight a series of battles on the road from Cajamarca. Given the mountaneous teraine, this was a remarkable accomplishment. Huáscar's surviving supporters giving their loyalty to Manco played animportant role. Pizarro thus met and defeated Atahualpa's forces. As in Mexico, the superior Spanish weaponry proved decisive. The Spanish had large chargers, body armour, steel swords, guns, and cannon. These were weapons totally unknown to the Incas. Pizarro and other conquistadores mounted on horseback, protected by armor that the Inca weapons could not penetrate, and brandishing steel sword, the Incas could not rest the Spanish cavalry.
The Spaniards were able to cut down Indian warriors with only wooden shields and cotton padding for protection. The Imca weapons clubs, spears, slingshots and arrows were rarely able to penetrate the Spanish armor. The Incas were at first not sure who they were dealing with. They were terrified by the Spaniards' horses and effective if primitive firearms--all new frighting new weapons to the native warriors.
Pizarro finally entered Cuzco (November 8, 1533). He appointed Manco, also a half-brother of Huascar, as a puppet Inca. Pizzaro was able to control the situation for nearly 3 years using Manco as a figure-head Inca. . One source indicates that he was at first accepted because Cuzco had favored Huascar. Pizarro after consolidated his control, established a newcapital at Lima (1535). Pizarro permitted Capac to hold court in Cuzco, but surrounded by the Spanish he was a virtually poweless figurehead monarch. This was exacerbated by the disrespect even abuse with which he and his court was treated by the Spanish.
We know little about Manco Capac's expectations. Apparently he thought that he would be a real Inca. Gradually he came to a realization that Pizarro would never permit this. His abusive treatment at the hands of the Spanish led him to plan a revolt. He planned a campaign to try the Spaniards out of Cuzco. He escaped from Cuzco and Pizarro's control (1536) and amass a huge army. Some historians estimate it at over 100,000 warriors. Manco then laid siege to the Pizarro in Cuzco. Manco came very close to victory. Only a daring breakout from Cuzco and an asault on Sacsayhuaman (a stone fortess over looking Cuzco) saved the Spanish. Manco Inca retreated to Ollantaytambo and then into the jungle at Vilcabamba.
With the lifting of the seige, Pizarro began founding new settlements. The most important was the new capital--Lima. Land and the peasants living on it was allocated encomienda to Pizarro's followers.
Relations between Pizarro and Almagro began to deteriorate even beore the expedition to Peru was launched. These disagreements intensified as the question of how to divide the spoils arose. Pizzaro's partner Almagro, became his principal rival. The result was a civil war among the Spanish. The fighting in the first civil war lasted from 1535 to 1548. The situation ws complicatd when Pedro de Alvarado attempted to claim Quito. Sebastián de Benalcázar and Almagro prevented this. Pizarro subsequently made a pact with Almagro, whom he had already cheated several times in the division of the Inca spoils. Pizarro offered him the opportunity to conquer Chile, the southern reaches of the Incan Empire. Amargo finally frustrated by his dealings with Pizarro. He attempted to get what he thouht was his due by seizing Cuzco. Pizarro ordered his half brother, Hernando Pizarro, to Cuzco. Hernando in a pitched battle on the plains near Cuzco defeated Almagro's forces, arrestd him, and then had him executed (1539). Francisco's greed and ambition his said to have been even among conquistadores--which says a great deal. Two years later Almagro loyalists retaliated. They surprised him at dinner. He reportedly fought desperately, despite his age. They overpowered and slaied him (1541). [Prescot]
King Charles I appointed Christobal Vaca de Castro as Governor of Peru, who, with the aid of the Pizarro loyalists, ended the political crisis. The new royal governor arrived in Peru after Pizarros death. He attempted to enforce The New Laws of 1542 which gave restricted the abuses perpetratedon the natives as part of the encomiencias. and encomenderos. Francisco had appointed his brother Gonzalo Pizarro governor of Quito, which was aprovince of Peru and under the authority of the new royal governor.
Slowly Spanish civil society began to develop in Peru. Spanish towns were founded in Incan towns, including Tumbes, Cajamarca, Lima, Quito, and Piura. Spanish social and economic structure developed. The population continued to be overwealming native Americans. The Spanish also brought in African slaves to work in the hot coastal areas. One report indicates thtat by 1560 even the African slave opulation outnumbered the Spanish.
The natives were terribly abused by hir new masters. There are many accounts of horendous cruelties. Some cautin is needed because in Europe religious wars had begun and the Spain had become a major supporter of the Catholic cause. The Protestants circulate accounts of Spanish cruelkties, including both the inquisition and the treatment of the native Americans. The natives were, however, not without their defenders. The Dominicans became major defenders of the natives. The most notable defender was Spanish planter and slave owner in Cuba whose conscious led him to the Church and priesthood--Las Casas. [Wells, p. 658.]
The sory of the conquest is one of courage and audacity mingled with avarice, treachery, loot, and crulty and stands in sharp contrast to that of North America where colonization was largely based on the desire for religious expression and land to farm. The conquest was to have a major impact on Europe. The gold and silver bullion had a major impact on European economies. In the long run it may have been the lowly potato that had the greatest impact.
Cieza de León, Pedro
De Xeres, Francisco. Narrative of the Conquest of Peru, 1530-34. Xeres was Pizarro's secretary.
Prescott, W.H. History of the Conquest of Peru (1847). This is the classic account of the conquest. Precott was a blind Massacusetts historian. His studies of the conquest of Mexico and Peru are perhaps the two best written studies of the Cinquistadores. Although Precott did not have the benefit of modern scolarship, his studies are not only very well written but historically accurate.
Pizarro, Pedro. Relation of the Discovery and Conquest of the Kingdoms of Peru (translated 1921).
Wells, H.G. The Outline of History: The Whole Story of Man (Doubleday: NewYork, 1971), 1103p.
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