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Terroism was at the heart of World War I in a chilling reminder to our modern age. War had been brewing in Europe for decades. It was a terrorist act that was the actual catalyst. Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip (June, 28, 1914) assasinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary. The Austrians were incorporating Bosnia into their Empire and had chosen the most sacred day in Serbian history, their defeat by the Ottoman Turks on the plains of Kosovo, for the Archduke's visit. The Austrians decided to punish the Serbs. The German
Government (July 6) gave its support for Austro-Hungary's plan to punish the Serbs. Germany and Austria-Hungary became known as the Central Powers. When Austria-Hungary with German backing declared war on Serbia, Russia and France began to mobilize its troops. As a result of Kaiser Wilhem's bumbling, France had succeeded in signing a mutual defense treaty. Germany felt impelled to strike at France before Russia could mobilize. Germany declaring war on Russia (August 1) and France (August 3). The German Army entered neutral Belgium (August 4), in an effort to go around the strong French border defenses. Britain declared war on Germany over the violation of Belgian neutrality. Britain, France, and Russia became known as the Allied countries. The Germans were convinced they could take Paris before either the British or Russians could intervene. Miraculously the French Army managed to stop the Germans at the Marne and the Western Front became a brutal war of attrition. Italy had signed a treaty with Germany and Austria Hungary, decided not to honor it and later entered the War. Turkey had signed a defensive alliance with Germany in July 1914 and seeing an opportuity to make major gains against their historic enemy Russia joined the Central Powers. Making another effort to win the War, Germany in 1917 reimplemented unrestricted submarine warfare (March ?, 1917), bringing America into the War (April ?, 1917). Despite German victories on the Eastern Front agaist Russia, the added resources and manpower America provided enabled the Allies to break the Germans on the Western Front. The Kaiser was forced to abdicate and a new government had to seak an armistace (November 11, 1918).
Count Alfred von Schlieffen, became German Chief of the Great General Staff in 1891. He worked on a war plan for years, perfecting a precise movement of troops. He submitted his plan in 1905. French foreign policy was devoted to ensuring that in another war with German, France would not fight alone. Kaiser Wilhelm bombastic sttements and aggressive policies, including the contruction og a highseas fleet, made the task much easier for French diplomats. France and Britain in 1904 signed the Entente Cordiale (friendly understanding), it was not a full military alliance, but it was clearly aimed at Germany. The French wanted to also involve Russia. The Germany military preceived the need for a military strategy if war came with France, this time aided by Britain and Russia. Schlieffen had for years been working on just such plan. Schlieffen's plan was permised argued that it was critical that France be quickly defeated. Without France, Schlieffen was convinced that neither Russia or Britain would continue the war. Schlieffen estimated that Russia would take 6 weeks to mobilize its massiv, but backwrd army. Thus to win the war, Germany must Therefore, it was vitally important to smash the French before the Russians could bring its forces to bear. Schlieffen envisioned commiting 90 percent of the Germany army to attack France as soon as war was declared. He was afraid of the strongly enginerred French border fortifications. He thus conceived of an attack west through the neutral neutral Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg and this invade France through the poorly defended Belgian border. The Germans would then swing east, take Paris and push the French Army back against their eastern frontier fortresses and
the Swiss frontier. Helmuth von Moltke replaced von Schlieffen as German Army Chief of Staff in 1906 and modified the plan by not invading the Netherlands and in weakening the right wing--a move von Schlieffen had specifically warned against.
The Germans in the revised plan would advance over the flat plains of Flanders. Moltke was cnvinced that that the Belgian army would be not effectibely resist a massive German attack.
Terroism was at the heart of World War I in a chilling reminder to our modern age. War had been brewing in Europe for decades. It was a terrorist act that was the actual catalyst. Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip (June, 28, 1914) assasinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary. The Austrians were incorporating Bosnia into their Empire and had chosen the most sacred day in Serbian history, their defeat by the Ottoman Turks on the plains of Kosovo, for the Archduke's visit. The Austrians decided to punish the Serbs. The German Government (July 6) gave its support for Austro-Hungary's plan to punish the Serbs.
Each of the belgerant countries convinced itself that it was responding to aggression and protecting themselves. In World war II there was a clear pattern of Axis ans Soviet aggression. World War I was much more complicated each country managed to view the opponents as aggressors. It was Austria-Hungary which in fact first launched milutary action. They were, however responding to the assasination of the heir go the throne in a terroist attack sponsored by Serbian officials. Thus it is unserstandable how they felt threatened. Germany first crossed the Belgian frontier, but felt threatened by a coordinarted Franco-Russian offensive. Fear "dreaded Slavs" and "Cossacks" weee especially frightening to the Germans. The French and Russians felt that they wre endangered if Germany was allowed to defeat one of them. The British felt endangered both by Germany's consruction of a high-seas fleetr and German domination of the Low Lands. These were not incidents like the staged Polish attacks on Germany in 1939. Each of the beligerants rightly or wrongly were reacting to preceived threats on their security.
Historians argue as to whether World war I could have been avoided. Certainly the European system had many hared values and interconnections that argued against war. Germany's desire for greater influence and the Kaiser's eratic personality were major factors. Bismarck might have avoided war, but the Kaiser was the complelete oposite of Bismarck. German Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg made no serious efforts to stop the spiral toward war. Then there was France's passionate desire to regain Alsace-Loraine as well as the nationality problems in the Balkans and Austria-Hungary were probably more than could be resolved thrpugh diplomacy. We can't help but think that even if the European powers had successfully negotiated the 1914 Balkans crisis that another crisis would have eventually brought war. But of course no one can be sure. One historian persuasively argues argues that the rapidity in which the crisis developed was just too fast for early 20th century communications to contend with. [Strachan]
Austria-Hungary was determined to punish Serbia for the assaination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. When Austria-Hungary with German backing declared war on Serbia, Russia was committed to defend the Serbs--fellow Slavs. Kaiser Wilhelm and Tsar Nicholas exchanged telegrams, but ther personal relationship could not restrain the developing tragedy. The Tsar orderdec a partial mobilization. France alsi began to mobilize its troops. Russia had the largest army in Europe and once moibilized posed a forbidable danger to Germany. Germany thus felt impelled to strike at France before Russia could mobilize. Germany declaring war on Russia (August 1) and France (August 3). The strike at France followed the Schlieffen Plan which meant invading Belgium. This brought Britain, which had treaty obligations to Belgium, into the War. After the War, the Allies demanded that Germany accept the guilt for launching the War. Some authors have laid the blame for the War largely on Germany. [Fischer] Other historians are more inclined to ascribe the blame to other countries as well seeing war in most instances as a reciprocal event. [Strachan]
The German Schlieffen Plan called for attacking France before Russia could fully mobilize. The German Army on August 2 marched into Luxembourg, and soon crossed into neutral Belgium (August 4). The German invasion of Belgium was an effort to go around the strong French border defenses. The British Government voted for war and ordered an Expeditionary Force (BEF) immediately dispatched to France, following plans aprepared before the War with the French High Command. The Germans to their surprise were seriously delayed by the Belgian Army> The Germans were shocked by the Russian Army's advance into East Prussia and how swiftly the BEF reached France and Belgium. The BEF formed on the left flank of the French Army. The French had committed the bulk of its army to a disastrous offensive into Alsace-Lorraine and first clashed with the German army near Mons in southern Belgium. The German invasion force forced the Allies into a strategic retreat. The Germans were convinced they could take Paris before either the British or Russians could intervene. The valiant resistance of the hoplessly outgunned Belgian Army under King Albert I helped slow the advancing Germans who had weakened their right wing, in part because of the Russian offensive.
It was not a forgone conclusion that the British would join France in a war with Germany. They had not joined France in the Franco-Prussian War (1870). In fact the British were concerned that the French were trying to draw them in a war against Germany. The French on the evee of war went to St. Petersburg to encourage Tsarist officials. The British War Cabinent decided against war if the Germans invaded France. The British were committed to a defnsive alliance, but the French were taking a beligerant approach. In the end the Germans were determined to activate the Schlifen Plan which projected a massive invasion through Belgium to avoid French defeneses. The Germans were sure that gain them a rapid victory before the British could make a meaningful contribution. The German attitude toward Germany in 1914 was very different than it had been in 1870. Kaiser Wilhem II had managed becuse of his belicose statemenbs and decission to build a highseas fleet had steadily eroded the German image in British public opinion. The invasion of neutral Belgium outraged the British public. Britain not only had a special relationship with Belgium since the 1830s, but had treaty obligation to insure Belgian neutrality establish when Belgium was created. King Leopold I had been largely responsible for bringing Albert and Vicoria together and was a family confident. For Britain the violation of Belgian neutality was the causus bellum for the declaration of war on August 4. [Gilbert] Britain, France, and Russia became known as the Allies. The German gamble to win the War by a quick strike through Belgium before Britain could effectively intervene proved to be a dreadful mistake. (The Kaiser was to make a second disastrous gamble in 1917, renewing unrestricted sunmarine warfare, believing they could win the War before America could train and transport an army to France.)
Throughout August the German Army moved rlentlessly forward, albeit behind schedule and a great cost. The British and Belgians had shlowed the German advance and diverted German focus on the French. The French army was central to the Allied war effort. The Belgians could delay the Germans and the British could play a mjor supporting role, but in the final analysis it would have to be the French Army that would stop the Germans. The Germans began to cross the Marne and it looked like the French would have to abandon Pars to the Germans. Joseph Joffre, the Commander-in-Chief of the French forces, ordered his men to fall back to a defensible line along the River Seine, south-east of Paris and over 60-km south of the Marne (September 3). Sir John French, BEF commander comitted to attacking the advanncing Germans. The French 6th Army attacked the German Ist Army at the Marne (September 6). General Alexander von Kluck wheeled his entire force to meet the attack, opening a 50-km gap between his forces and the German 2nd Army led by General Karl von Bulow on his flank. The British the French 5th Army struck into that gap, splitting the two German armies. The fighting was furious, the French 6th Army was close to collapse, but the French used Paris taxis to rush 6,000 reserve troops to the front. Finally von Moltke had to order von Bulow and von Kluck to fallback (September 9). Miraculously the French Army had managed to stop the Germans at the Marne, saving Paris. [Tuchman] Not only were the Germans forced to retire back over the Marne, but the French and British crossed the Marne in pursuit. The Schlieffen Plan had failed to bring a quick German victory. By this time the German army had ehausted itself and the two sides began digging trenches to protect themselves from the murderous machine guns and artillery. The short war of rapid movement that everyone had expected degenerated on the Western Front into a stagnant war of the attrition. The Germns had gambled that following the Schliffen Plan and invading Belgium and bringing Britain into the war would be a moot point after a swift victory. This proved to hav been a disastrous miscalculation.
The Russians, true to their treaty obligations, with the commencemebnt of hoistilities, drove west with their huge but cumbersome army into Germany (East Prussia) and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The Lithuanian and Poles had decisevely defeated the Teutonic Knights near Tannenburg haltuing German expansion east (1410). Thus it was a location indelibly engrained in German history. Germany braced for the invading Russian Army. The Germans under Hindenburg and Ludendorff met a Russian army under Samsonov (August 26, 1914). The Germans smashed the Russians, taking 100,000 prisoners. Such was the scale of the Russian defeat that Samsonov shot himself. A scond Russian army under Rennenkampf was to have joined up with Samsonov. The Germans soon engaged that army and destroyed it in the Battle of the Mansurian Lakes. Hindenburg and Ludendorff became German national heros.
Having stopped the Russians in the East, the Germans again turned their attention West. This was the last effort in the War to wage a free wheeing war of movement that all the beligerant military commanders had anticipated. Ypres was located in Western Belgium (Flanders) near the French border. The First Battle of Ypres began Germans struck in an offensive aimed at seizing the Channel Ports (October 1914). The German losses were horendous and they finally had to susoend the iffensive (Novenber 1914). After the First Battle of Ypres the War on the Eastern Front settled down into static, but bloody trench warfare. Ypres proved to be some of the most contested ground of World War I. Several further battles were fought here. The Third Battles of Ypres was a terrible blood-letting for the British who lost 400,000 men for minimal gains. Finally it was at Ypres that the British finally broke through the Gernan lines (October 1918).
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World War I resulted in a revolution in infantry tactics which fundamentally altered how wars were fought. The armies which clashed in August 1914 operated on essentially 19th century doctrines, large units of riflemen were screened by cavalry and
supported by artillery. Commanders expecting a decisive engagements to settle the war rapidly. Sweeping manuevers exposed the calvary and infanntry to the killing power of modern weapons. Modern weapons, especially artillery and machine guns as well as accurate rapid-fire rifles proved devestating, especially when used against the tactics field commanders employed in the initial phases of the War. Field operations by 1916 had, after the loss of millions, been fundamentally changed. The professional armies of 1914 were devestatee and were replaced by conscripted replacenments. What began as a rapid war of movement soon settled down to static trench warfare and became a brutal war of attrition. Both the Germans and French and British began digging trenches to stay alive. Eventually parallel trench systems streached from the Swiss border to the English Channel. There were about 40,000 kilometers of trenches on the Western Front alone. Living conditions in the trenches were dreadfull, but they did offer protection. [Bull] The British developed the tank which helped to breach the German trench lines, but it would be the Germans in World War II tha would put this weapon to effective use.
The War began as a struggle between Germany and Austria-Hungary and France and Russia. Britain and Belgium were immediately drawn into the War because Germany in vaded France through Belgium. Many other countries were eventually drawn into the War. Two of the most important to enter the War were the Ottoman Empire (Turkey) and Italy. Turkey which was heavily courted by Germany had been hard-ptrssed by Russia saw the opportunity to win back lost territory and joined the Central Powers. Italy which was allied with Germany decided to join the Allies, prinarily because they were offered territorial gains at the expense of Austria-Hungary. Neither country when they entered the War had any idea what the costs would be.
World War I was begun and eventually settled on the Western Front. The figting on the Eastern Front was critical in preventing the Germans from forcing a conclusion at the beginning of the War. There was also fighting in the Middle East. There were, however, engagements in many other theaters which are scarely remembered today. They were not of the dimensions of World war II, but they did occur. German Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck led a campaign in East Africa. The Germans had little chance of suceeding in Africa because of the Royal Navy's command of the seas. The campasigns were, however, quite remarkable. A Turkish Army essentially froze in the Sarikamish campaign. A British Indian army was destroyed by the Turks at Kut in modern Iraq. The Austro-Hungarian Army suffered enormous losses in Galacia, especially around Lemberg (Lviv) that severely weakened it. Campaigns were fought in the Balkans. Naval engagements were fought in the South Atlantic. [Strachan] The Japanese and British cooperated in China and the Pacific to seize German colonies.
Many countries had home leave policies allowing soldiers to spend a few days at home out of the front lines. This made it possible to visit with parenbts and family for a few days away from the fighting. I am not ure how often these leaves were granted. Such policies varied from country to country. The War on the Western Front was conducted over a stable battle front very near to French and German cities. Soldiers could get on a train near the frnt line and be at home within hours. England was also close, only the minor complication of a Channel crossing. Americans were in the War only a little over a year. Vrossing the Atlantic mae home leaves infeasible. We have little actual information on the home leave policies of combatant countries. Many studies of World War I do not even mention this subject.
Poison gas was first used in World War I. Poison gas was first been developed by a German Jewish scientist working for the Whermacht. Gas was widely used on the both the Western and Eastern Front during the War. Losses were especially severe on the Eastern Front where the Russians were not equipped to take the needed counter measures and were unable to reply
with gas weapons of their own. The Germans first used poison gas at Ypres (April 1915) with devestating effect. The British and French followed suit. I don't think the Americans and Russians used it, but I think the Austrians did. Gas because of its stealth and horendous effects was perhaps, the most terror-inspiring of all the World War I weapons. Poison gas caused only a small fraction of total battlefield deaths, less than 0.1 million, but more than 1.3 million men received terrible wounds--many never fully recovered. Countermeasures were, however, rapidly developed which reduced gas to primarily a means of harassing the opposing forces. One estimate suggests that by the end of the War in 1918, about 25 percent of all artillery shells fired contained chemical weapons.
After the French stopped the Germans on the Marne, the most important battle of the War was Verdun. Verdun was the most drawnout battle of the War and considered by most historians to have been the greatest battle. German Chief of Staff, Erich von Falkenhayn, accurately concluded in 1915 that the key to winning the war lay not on the Eastern Front, but on defeating the French Army on the Western Front. Falkenhayn maintained that if France could be defeated in a major set-piece battle, Britain would have no other option than seeking terms from Germany. This of course is a strategy the Germans could have persued in 1914. If they had attacked France directly instead of through Belgium, they would not have ad to fight the Belgians and British and in all liklihood would have prevailed on the Western Front. Falkenhayn correctly assessed that the French would consider the defense if Verdun as a matter of honor. His plan was essentially to bleed the French white in the defense of Verdun. One historian claims this is what all commanders said after their offensives failed and that he was actually trying to achieve break through. [Strachan] Verdun and surrounding fortifications were a strategic French position located on the eastern section of the Western Front and thus was fought by the Germans and French without British involvement. The battle took place in 10 km square around the French fortifications at Verdun. The battle began with a German offensive (February 21, 1916). The Germans hammered at Verdun for 8 months, but because of the British to the west could not concentrate all of their forces. General Henri Philippe Petain made the words " They shall not pass " (Ils ne passeront pas ) famous during the Battle of Verdun in World War I. The Germans were unable to compleletly suyrround Verdun. The French maintained a road connection to supply their forces in Verdun. It came to be called the "Sacred Way". Verdun was the greatest bloodbath in European military history. Casualties totaled and incredibke 0.7 million men. The fighting did not end until the end of the year (December 19).
The Battle of the Somme is one of the major engagements of World War I. The BEF supported by the French attempted to take the German's strong defensive position in the Somme valley. The French had convined the Brittish commander Douglas Haig to launch an offensive to relieve the German pressure on the French at Verdun. The British casualties were horrendous. It is probable that if modern media existed at the time that the War would have endeded at Verdun and the Somme. The British public if they had fully understood what had happened would not have tolerated the War. The same can be said of the French Verdun. The Somme was a terrible bloodletting. After the Somme there was no illusioins in Britain about what war meant.
Italian General Luigi Cadorna assembeled 25 infantry and 4 cavalry divisions on the Austrian border. The Italian force was organized into four armies. Italy was the weakest of the major European powers. It was a poor country with a partly industrialized north. The Italian Army was thus not equipped for a modern war. The Italians had only 120 heavy or medium artillery pieces and about 700 machine guns. Cadorna despite the limitations of his forced launced the spring Isonzo Offensive (May 1915). The Austrians following the pattern of the Western Front, built a system of trench defenses. Four indesivive battles were fought on the Isonzo River. The Italian goal was to take Trieste, a largely Italian city on the Adriatic. The city was important to the Audstria because it was the Empire's only important port. Without Trieste, the Austro-Hungarian Empire was largely land-locked. The Italians took heavy casualties trying to break through the Italin trenches. In only 2 weeks of fighting, 60,000 Italians were killed. The Italian continued the attacks into the winter. Casualtied mounted and totaled 300,000 men by the time the offensived was ended. Despite the huge losses, Italy between 1915 and 1917, never penetrated more than 10 miles into Austrian territory.
The major contending powers in the War were the Central Powers (Germany and Austria) and the Allies (France, Britain, and Russia). Italy had signed a treaty with Germany and Austria Hungary, decided not to honor it and later entered the War. Turkey had signed a defensive alliance with Germany in July 1914 and seeing an opportuity to make major gains against their historic enemy Russia joined the Central Powers. The British, in particular as the War dragged on, sought to involve America which had proclaimed its neutrality after the outbreak of hostilities. British propaganda played up the German invasion of Belgium. The Germans harshly administered occupied Belgium, but British propaganda painted a vicious pictures of the Germans--an image they wereto live up to in World War II. The British painted the War has a conflict betwen the Allied democracies (Britain, France, and Italy) and the authoritarian Central Powers (Germany, Austria, and Turkey). This played wll in America. The obly problem was that Russia, the most autocratic country in Europe was a key member of the Allied coalition. It was Russia in August 1914 that prevented thge German from bringing the full weight of their Army to bear against the French and winning the War at the onset in August-September 1914.
Military airplanes when the war began were primative, unarmed craft. Many military experts dismissed them as a weapon of war. At the time, the principle recognizance tool was the cavalry. Machine guns soon put an end to cavlary and commanders began turning to airplanes. The major role of the air arm became recognisance. It was a French pilot who spotted the deformation in the German lines that resulted in the Miracle on the Marne (1914). Recognisance and artillery spotting became the major role of the air arm during the war. Stunning technical advances occurred throughout the War as air superiority sung back and forth between the Germans and Allies. The Allies could outbuild the Germans, but the Germans came up with important advances that at time gave them air superority over the trenches. Flying was one of the most dangerous activities in the War. A new pilot arriving at the front had on average only a few weeks to live. The Germans attempted to use Zephlins as bombers, but they proved easy targets for fighters and artillery. Bombers were not employed to any extent because they were still being developed. Both sides were, however, preparing bombing operations had the War lasted into 1919.
The German surface fleet, the pride of the Kaiser, which had played such an important role in turning the British against the Germans played only a minor role in the War. There were a number of small engagements including German shelling of fishing villages. The only major engagement was Jutland (1916). The German fleet performed well, but unable to overcome the numerical superiority of the Royal Navy's Grand Fleet. The small U-boat fleet, however, proved a major challenge to the British. Early in the War, U-boats sunk three British cruisers, astounding the public both in England and Germany. The Germans backed down unconditional submarine warfare when America protested the sinking of the Lusitania. The sinking of the Lusitania combined with the invasion of neurtal Belgium helped create the image of Germans in the American mind as modern day Huns. Making another effort to win the War, Germany in 1917 reimplemented unrestricted submarine warfare (March 1917), bringing America into the War (April 1917). The U-boat fleet succeeded in sinking 5,000 ships. That was an amazing 25 percentb of the Allied merchant fleet. The Allies attempted to determine how to sink U-boats and developed the depth charge. It was, however, the introduction of the convoy system that defeated the U-boat. The World War I U-boat was really a surfacre vessel that could sumbmerge. Against esorted convoys, it had little chance of success. In the end the German Navy only served to bring Britain and America into the War, ensuring Germany's defeat. An embittered German naval office, Karl Donnietz, confined in a British POW camp in 1918 was already planning Germany's strategy in the next war. Under the terms of the Versailles Treaty, the Germans could had to surrender their fleet. The German High Seas Fleet sailed for Scappa Flow in 1919, but many of the officers scuteled their vessels rather than handing them over to the British.
President Wilson launched a major peace initiative (December 1916). After the Somme and Verdun, it might be thought that both the Allies and the Central powers would have been willing to consider making peace. He dispacted Col. House to Eurooe to persuade the combatants to make peace on a basis fair to all. The Allies humored him. The Kaiser was dismissive. He considered Wilson an amateur and unsophisticated. He had no appreciation for the importance of America, in part because the Unuted States did not have a credu=itable army or military tradoition. The Allies had a greater appreciation for America's importance and thus treated House Wilson's proposals with more deferemce. Neither side was, however, willing to give up their war aims. The French would not give up their goal of regainning Alsace-Loraine and the Germans would not give it up. Britain was unable to allow Germany to control the Low Lands and the Germans again would not withdraw. Even Russia and Austria-Hungary, both near collapse, would not willing to accept America mediation.
The poorly organized and led Russian Army suffered enormous losses. The Russian tied down large German armies in the Eastern Front, making it impossible for the Germans to concentrate their strength against the French and British on the Western Front. Germany began the War as the strongest single country in Europe. The inability of the Germans to concentrate their strength in the West in the end cost them the war. The Russians finally cracked in 1917. Revolution broke out in Petrograd. The Tsar attetmpted to retuen to the capital, but was arrested and forced to abdicate. A Provisional Government formed from the Duma attempted to continue the War. The Bolsheviks promosing "Bread, pace, and land," seized control in the name of the Petrograd Soviet. The Germans forced a humiliating peace on the Bolsevicks at Brest-Litovsk (1918). With Russia out of the War they could finally concentrate their strength in the West. The Germans amassed their forces in 1918, hoping that they could break the Allies before the Americans arrived in France in force.
The Western Allies (Britain and France) on the Western Front commit serious tactical errors. The were only saved from defeat by the defect that the Germans had to divide their forces between a Eastern and Western Front. With superior resources and larger man-power reserves, the British and French were not only unable to dent the German Western Front, but sustained enormous casulaties in poorly conceived offensives in whivh infantry was thrown at fixed German positions resulting in massive cassualties. Both the British and French High Command essebtially lied to the civilian governments to mask the extent of the disasters on the Western Front as a result of their leadership. [Mosier] In the end, over 2.3 million British Empire and French soldiers were killed in the War. The Germans who fought on two fronts and lost the War suffered fewer lossess--1.8 million mortalities. When Russia collapsed in 1917-18, the Germans were convinced that they could finally bring the War to a conclusion on the Western front.
The Allies faced the greatest crisis of the War since the initial German invasion in 1917. England began the War with only a small professioinal army. The BEF was rushed to France and Belgium in August 1914, but for the first years of the War, it was the much larger French Army that was bulwark of the Allied defense on the Western Front. Thus the French suffered much larger casualties than the British. The blood letting at Verdun was particularly severe. Marshal Foch was replaced with General Robert Nivelle’s who launched the Chemin des Dames Offensive (1917). The offensive failed with disastrous losses--over 100,000 men were killed or wounded,. It also brought the French Army close to collapse. Discontent flared among French frointline troops. In addition to a collapse in confidence with their commanders, French troops vigorously criticized how they were treated: food, home leaves, rest, and other matters. Thet had many justfiable complaints. While French officers received home leave, some enlisted men had been in the trenches for 3 years without any leave. One report suggests that 30,000 men left the trenches and began walking home.
At one point 54 divisions which constituted half the French Army were not responding to orders from commanding generals. The High Command feared that the Army was near collaspse. The French bturned to Marshal Petain, the hero of Verdun. He acted decisively. There were mass arrests and about 24,000 men were tried. The trials attempted to focus ion the leaders. In the end 400 men were sentenced to death of which 50 were shot. The rest were shipped to Devil's Island. Petain also instituted reforms to address the many legitimate vgrevences of the men. The mutiny lasted 6 weeks. Incredibly thev Germans do not seem to have preceived what had occurred. A major German oiffensive at this time might have cracked the Frenchb Army. Petain succeeded in restoring discipline in the Army, but itv was a changed Army. The French were no longer willing to launch major offensives against the Germans, but they would hold the line if attacked. It was to be the British and British Empire troops along with the new American Army that began to arrive in 1917 that in the end would crack the Hindenberg Line.
American President Woodrow Wilson camaigned for re-election in 1916 with the slgan "He kept us out of war". America at various points tried to negotiate an end to the War. Wilson in a 1917 speech called for a "peace without victory". None of the major European combatants showed much interest in the American efforts. The Britsh were still hopeful that America would join the Allies. Kaiser Wilhelm dimissed Wilson's efforts as unrealistic. The Germans seriously under estimated the potential impact of American involvement. Gambling that they could force a decission in the Western Front, the military convinced Kaiser Wilhelm to resume unrestricted sunmarine warfare. After German U-boats sank five American merchant vessels, President Wilson on asked Congress to Declare War on Germany which was approved April 6. This proved to be a disastrous German miscalculation. The American and Britsh Navies defeated the U-boat campaign.
The collapse of Russia in late 1917 and peace treaty forced upon the Bolsevicks in 1918 enabled the Germans to transfer powerful forces to the Wesern Front. The draconian demands on the Bolshecicks delayed the siugning of the peace treaty and the transfer of troops to the Western Front. The Russian Revolution occurred during the late Fall. The ensuing Winter of course meant that the Germans could not l;aunch a major offensive. By the tinme they were able to launch their offensive, a new American Army of over 1 million men awaited them in the Allied trenches. Without the arrival of the Americans, it is likely that the Germans would have won the war. German General Ludendorff was to say after the War that it was the arrival of the American infantry that was the decisive factor on the Western Front.
When the German Spring 1918 Western offensive ground to a halt the Allies initiated their offensive. This was largely an Anglo-American opperation. The French Army since 1917 was largely restricted to defensive operations. The British in 1914 had only a small professioinal force. By 1918 they had built a large conscript army. The army had learned a great deal on the Somme (1916) and with a new tank force was ready to assault the Hindenberg Line. The Americans when they entered the War in 1917 also had only a small proifessional army. America rapidly built a large concript army and by mid-1918 that army was ready to assault the Germans. The Allies wanted the Americans to be used as replacement troops in British and French units. Pershing insisted on fielding an American army--the AEF. Having help stop the German offensive, the Americans along wwith the Brirish went on the offensive.
The Allied Hundred Days Offensive proved to be the war-winning offensive of World War I. The Allies struck (August 8). The German Spring-Summer offensive had severely bleed the German Army. Unfer the powerful Allied onslaught, the Germans finally began to crack and large numbers of soldiers began to surrender and desert. The Allies forced the Germans to retreat.
Allied offensives on the Western Front cracked the German front forcing them back toward Germany. The German Navy mutined. Riots broke out in Germany cities. The General staff informed the Kaiser that they could no longer guarantee his saftey. He abdicated and fled to the neutral Netherlands. A German Government was hastily formed and asked for an armistice based on President Wilson's 14 Points. After determining that the request came from a civilian German Government and not the Kaiser or German military, the Allies accepted the German offer. There was not total agreement on this Genetral Pershing wanted to fight on to Berlin. The guns fell silent after 4 years of vicious fighting at the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month (November 11, 1918). There had been over 8.5 million soldiers killed and 21.2 million wounded.
Bull, Stephen. World War I Trench Warfare two volumes (Osprey Publishing Co., June 2002).
Fischer, Fritz.
Gilbert, Martin. World War I.
Mosier, John. The Myth of the Great War: A New Military History of World War I (Harper Collins, 2001).
Strachan, Hew. The First World War (Viking, 2004), 354p. Strachan offers an excellent brief review of some of the lesser known campigns. This volume is a condensed version of a three volume work he is preparing.
Tuchman, Barbara. The Guns of August.
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