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World War II air campaign -- civil defense country trends
World War II Air Campaign: Civil Defense--Country Trends
Figure 1.--The British, remembering German bombing during World War I, evacuated city school children immediatey with the German invasion of Poland (September 1, 1939). It had all been carefully planned beforehand. It was, however, a voluntary evacuation and many parents keopt the children at home. Thus the children were drillled and redrilled until they knew just how to react and wiyhoutb panic. Thus thet reacted perfectly when the air raid sireens went off, or when the all clear dounded as we see here. You have to admire this teacher and her flock. Niotuice the gas masks. There were no shelters in the schools, but safe areas were sorted out and often sand bags added. Thus the children were safe from everything but a direct hit. After the RAF forced the Germans to duiscontinue day-light raids of course the chilren were at home with their oarents.
Civil defense took on enormous proportions in three countries: Britain, Germany, and Japan. Many others countries were bombed, but only these three contries experienced sustined bombardment designed to knock it them out of the war. The German effort to bomb Britain out of the War is known as the Battle of Britain. The Allied effort to knock the Germans and Japanese out of the War is known as he strategic bombing campaign. American and British bombers attacked Germany and American bombers attacked Japan. Civil Defense prepartions varied widely. The British had few mass bomb shelters, although the subways were eventually opened. And home shelters were made availavke. Britain's majo CD assett, however, was the vertical outlay of its cities. Rather than bulding up, the Britih built out. This meant that bombing London and other cities was ounterproductive it took more vombs to destroy British cities thn Germn cities. And it meant that enormous quantities od scarce military resources could kill or diplace numbers of civilians. The Germans eperienced the longest strategic bombing campaign. Bombing was a first light, but when the British aquired heavy bombing capability with the Lancaster (1942) and the Americans jouned them (1943) the arond-the-clock bombardment began (1943). The destriction of the Luftwaffe layed German cities open to huge waves of Allied bombers. German cities and war industries were reduced to rubble, but Germany's highly effective CD campaign limited civlian casualties. Japan's principal CD assett was distance. The Home Islands were beyond the reach of american bombers. The cities themselves were the most vuknerable of all belligerant countris. They were mostly built of wood and paper and were esenyially huhe potentil bonfires. Unlike the Jpanese, America had the capability of developing new advanced weapons during the war. The new F6F Hellcat made possible the seizure of the Narianas Islands from which the new B-29 Bombers could reach the Home Islands. Even before the use of two atomic bombs, American bombers had turned Japanese cities into glowing cinders. And CD efforts were of little avail.
Australia
We know very little about Australian civil defense efforts. We do note school air raid drills after the devestaiung Japanese air raid on Darwin in the north (February 1942). Fortunatelly for the country, the population and major cities were located in the coutheast. Ans at the time najor American milktary shioments were von the way, incklusung substanial air assetts.
The Air Raid Precautions (ARP) was the British civil defense organisation. It was established long before World War II and the Battle of Britain. Britain was bombed by the Germans in World war I, by both bombers and Zephins. The attacks had been of no strategic importance, but the civilans were terrified. Britain was building a strategic bombing force to prepare a massive aerial assault on Germany in 1919. The War ended, however, before the campaign was launched (1918). And after the War with improvements in aviation, it became obvious that aerial bombardment could devastate whole cities. Italian military theorist Giulio Douhet published a work on future air warfare that proved highly influential (1921). One memorable phrase reached the public conciousness, "the bomber will always get through". [Douhet] He proved to be correct. The British Government as a result established the Air Raid Precautions organization (1924). The German bombing of Guernica during the Spanish Civil War made it clear that the German Luftwaffe was prepared to bomb cities. The British Air Ministry believed that a German bombing campaign woukd be devestating and predicted a million casualties and the destruction of London. And Britain almost went to war with Germany over Czechoslovakia (1938). The Government believed that poison gas would be a part of the German asault and ordered gas masks for civilians. No effort was made to build deep shelters, although home shelters were devised. The 1939 Hailey Conference concluded that providing deep shelters would lead to workers staying underground rather than working (1939). The ARP braced for a German attack during the Munich Crisis so when war did come, they were ready. The ARP took on the task of issuing gas masks, pre-fabricated air-raid shelters (Anderson and Morrison shelters), setting up public shelters, and the maintenance of the blackout. The ARP also helped in the rescue effort after air raids and other attacks, and some women became ARP Ambulance Attendants whose job was to help administer first aid to casualties, search for survivors, and in many grim instances, help recover bodies, sometimes those of their own colleagues. ARP Wardens patrolled assigned city neigborhoods to make sure that every home was blacked out. The iniitial Luftwaffe campaign was a daylight campaign against the RAF. When this failed and increasing losses forced the Luftwaffe to shift to night-time bombing, the black out became very important. Boys served as ARP messengers. The effectiveness of the German aerial bombardment campaign proved less than anticipated. There was substabtial property damage and civilian casuakltues, but far less than anticipated. And the Luftwaffe did not significantly impair the British war econonomy. This was because the Luftwaffe was a tactical force and the RAF exacted a heavy toll on the slow-moving bombers. After the British withstood the Blitz, Hitler shifted the Luftwaffe east to prepare fvor Barbarossa (1941). The morale of the British people remained high througiout the Blitz. The ARP headquarters was at Baylis House in Slough, Buckinghamshire. The Goverment created the Civil Defence Service (1941) which took over the ARP responsibilities and organization. Even so, the public continued to refer to civil defense as the ARP throughout the War. The ARP was formally disbanded (1946).
Canada
Canada was in the same fortunate position as the United states. It was very difficult for the Axus fircs to get to them. A total of four Americans were killed in the United States by Axis forces. As far as we know there were no Canadians killed in Canada. The Axis just did not have the capability of reaching continental North Amnerica. And Canada was even more difficult to get to than America because the major ports and cities were not along the Atlantic seaboard. Canada entered the War over 2 years before the United Strates, joining Britain after the German invsion of Poland (Seoptember 1939). Brig.-Gen. Alexander Ross was appointed national director of Canada’s Air Raid Precaution organization. Many cities set up Civilian Protection Committees, but very little was done to prepare. It was soon apparaent that the Germans did not have the capability to reach Canadian cities, although they were working on it. Hitler had a spcial desire to strike out att New York. There were practice black outs, but they were always well anniunced in advance. When the first surprise black out in Montreal wasbstaged (signaled by sireens), the level of compliance was minimal (October 12, 1943). The newspaper reported, "Thousands of Montrealers were caught unawares by the city’s first real surprise blackout last night, and lights were aglow in uncounted homes and many downtown and industrial area establishments long after the sirens had sounded." [Kalbfleisch]
China
Chinese citiies were the first country to be attscked by Axis air fices. This began in Msnchuria (1931), but Shanghai was also bombed when pritestirs attckd Jaopanese in thd city. The bonbing of Chinese cities began in earest when the Japanese invaded China proper (1937). The Jaoanese called it the 'China Incident' and expected the campaign to be over in months as was the case in Manchuria. China had no early warnning system. Air raid sireens would be sounded only when the nombers were spotted over the cities. The small Chinese Auir Firce was destoyed in months and there were almost no anti-aircraft guns. The Natiionlist rmy put uo a string defense if Shbghzair, but then afer severl dailed battles sithdrew inti the interiioe here the Jaoanese Zrmy did not have the logisticl coability to get at them. The Japasnse begn an aerial bombing campaign. A major tarket was Chunking--the Nationlist war-time caspital. The Nationlists set up a primitive early warning system. Telephone lines woul strung out to outlying villsges where spotters would report Japanese aircrft. This system would be used by the American Flying Tigers when they arrived (January 1942).
France
The French were also concerned about German aerial attack, but had a more limited program than the British. There was not radar defense system. And the Germans used the Luftwaffe primarily to defear the French Army, not to destroy French cities. The French would experince more dmage to their cuties as a result of Allied operatibes to liberate the cojuntry and drive out the Germans. A major Allied target were the French transpot system being used by the Germns to supply the Atlantic Wall beach defenses. The Allies also target French ports with U-boat instaltions and French industry being used to support the Germn war economy. We have not been able to find much information about the French evacuation program. We believ it was primarily aimed at getting children out of Paris, but have few details. Perhaps readers wil know more.
Unlike many countries the Germsns attacked, the Germans had air defenses--primarily the powerful Luftwaffe. The delay in the Allied strategic bombing campaign gave the Germans the time to build not only a formidable air defence line, but also a first-class Civil Defense system. There was both Air Defenses and Air Protection (Luftschutz). The German air defenses were formidable. The Kamhuber Line radars not only directed the German fighters, but alerted the cities of an coming boming raid. The British fought the campaign at first with obsolete aircraft. But by the end of 1942 the Lancaster was ready and the American 8th Air Force with its B-17s and B-24s were in place. President Roossevelt and Primeminister Churchill agreed to a round-the-clock bombing campaign (January 1943). The strength of the Kamhuber Line and the Luftwaffe took a deadly toll on Allied formations (1943). The arrival of the long-range P-51 escorts changed this and the Luftwaffe could no longer defend the Reich's cities. The basic defense becme the anti-aircraft Flak batteries. The Flak batteries could take a toll on the bomber formations, but could not stop them. The Germans called Civil Defense Luftschutz (Air Prorection). German civilians had to rely on the the bomb sheters and civilian defense facilities from the increasingly heavy Allied raids. In the end the Allies leved virtually every major German city. The civil defense program, however, proved very effective in protecting civilians. The Germans also launched a major evacuation effort, much less publicized that than the British evacuation program. They could not save the cities wghere the war industrues were located. The could save most of the peoole.
Italy
Germany's Axis partners had very limited civil defense programs. Italy was not ready for which was demonstrated by the country's disaterous martil performance. Not onlu=y was the military not prepared, but neither was the civilian government dspite bombastic public prformance by Mussolini. There was no significant civil defense effort cinducted before the War. Musolini entered the War apparently thinking that the Germans had largely won the War and that the Meditrranean would become an Axis lake making Italy safe from aerial attack (June 1940). This of coursedid not occur and especially after America entered the War, the Allies secured North Africa and had the air power to begin atacks on Italy. The Italian people were on their own with virtually no availale shelters. Some Italians sought shelter in caves which were available in a few locations.
Japan
The Japanese Government was aware of Japan's vulnerability to aerial attack with wood and paper cities. The primary reasoning thery ignored this ulnerability seems to have been that the the Japanese military believed gthat they could establish a wide security zone which would make American air attacks impossible. And that the war would be short because the Americans would quickly make peace, unwilling to pay the cost in blood and treasure needed to to assault Japan's newly won empire. Military planners often make mistakes, but this has to be bear the tops of the greatest mistakes in history. A U.S. War time assessment of civil defense preparations reported, "The Antiaircraft Defense Association, "Kokukiokia," instructs civilians in air raid measures. It is a local, voluntary organization working under government control, educating and training the public. Smaller units known as "Neighbor-Group Air Defense" groups, of about 11 families each, are also organized to combat fires, etc., but until actual raid conditions prevail, no knowledge of their efficiency in training may be expected. Such information as is available tends to show that the government is thoroughly aware of the vulnerability of the islands." [U.S. War Department] As far back as 1933 we notice practice air raid measures--in this case involving poison gas. During the actual war, Japan would be the only country to use poison gas. A few air raid shelters were constructed in Tokyo (1936). Others have been built throughout the empire, but not for the genral public. The American war time assessment continues, "While the necessity of gas-proofing these shelters is perfectly obvious, and no doubt regulations were issued to this effect, there is no documentary evidence along these lines. According to a German broadcast on March 23, 1942, 'The Japanese government, recognizing the failure of the people to purchase gas masks for their protection, began the distribution of masks throughout the islands, limiting the number to one to a household for training purposes and assessing the costs to the individual. The State bears the cost to the poor.'" The Japanese began evactuating children from the cities in the last year of the War. But when the American bombing raids became effective and food began to diasappear, civilans began fleeing the cities.
Soviet Union
The Soviets did not have an important CD program. s with Japan, its primary CD assett was distance, but unlike the Japanese, the vastness of the country added to the distance factor. Moscow's subways proved an important CD fcility. They hd been built than necessary, in part out of considration for aerial attack. Saving civilians was, however, not a high priority for Stalin. He fid not allow civilian evacuations in Lenningrad, Moscow, or Stalingrad. His calculation was that the Red Army would fight harder to save civilians. As in Britain, the Luftwaffe proved in capable of an effective strategic bombing campaign. Cities in the westen Soviet Union were bombed or occupied, but muv=ch the country's industrial plant was evacuated east beyond the Urals which placed Soviet industry beyond the reach of the Luftwaffe. The Luftwaffe was too small and lacked the heavy bombers needed to wage a strategic nombing campaign in the East. Stalingrad was the last Soviet city to be razed by German bombers (September 1942). Luftwaffe losses in the effort to save Stalingrad (942-43) and then in the effort to protect German cities (1943-44) left the Germans incapable of strategic bombardment.
The United States began Civil Defense planning even before entering the War. The United States had ahuge advantage in its CD planning--the benefy of distance from agressor mations ad a two ocean shield. The World War I Council of National Defense was reactivated by President Roosevelt and created the Division of State and Local Cooperation to assist the Council's efforts. [SEMP] As a result, civil defense preparations began as a continuation of what had been implemenbt during World War I. Officials involved soon concluded that giving significant responsibilities to local and state councils was an inadequate resoponse to the dangers involved. The President vested responsibility primarily at the Federal level with the creation of the Office of Civilian Defense (OCD) within the Office of Emergency Planning (OEP) in the Executive Office of the President (EOP) (May 20, 1941).[SEMP] The OCD was originally headed by New York Mayor Fiorello La Guardia and was charged with developing both protective measures and suppoting national morale. La Guardia was to work with First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt, but the two did not get along. The matrix of American CD agencis effort was expanded just days before the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor with the creation of the Civil Air Patrol (CAP). The CAP was assigned responsibility for commissioning civilian pilots to patrol the coast and borders. They were also to engage in search and rescue missions as needed. And this woud soon be needed when German U-boats appeared off the American Atlantic coast. Pearl Harbor lent great urgency to th CD programs. And there was a near panic after Pearl Harbor about possible air attacks, especially on the West Coast.
Sources
Kalbfleisch, John. "From the archives: Wartime blackout drill caught Montreal off guard,"
Montreal Gazette (October 12, 2017).
