Figure 1.--Army Chief of Staff Douglass MacArthur as a young leuntenit fought in the Phillipines. Thtought his carreer he has an affection for Filipinos. Here a group of Philipno Scouts is visiting Geeral MacArthur in his War Department Office (August 25, 1935). The Scout leader was Exequiel Villacorta. They were in Washington for the First American Scout Jamboree. Unfortunately for the boys, the Jamboree had to be cancelled because of an outbreak of Infantile Paralasis (Polio). Two months later, MacArthur would return to the Philippines himself to help build the new Philippines Army.

The Japanese invaded the Philippines days after the attack on Pearl Harbor. The Philippino people suffered greviously under Japanese occupation. This helped fuel an effective Resistance campaigns carried out by guerillas which had achieved control of substantial areas. The Japanese, however, controlled the population centers, especially on Leyte and Luzaon. The Navy preferred targetting Formosa (Taiwan), but MacArthur eventually prevailed with his insistence that America must retun to the Philippines. He considered his vow to return a pledge to the Philippinp people that had to be honored. Some how his vow, "I shall return." seems less approaptiate than "We shall return", but it was pure MacArthur and he convinced President Roosevelt. Reports from resistance fighters and American pilots revealed that the Japanese were not heavily defending large areas of the Islands. The inasion of Mindanao was considered unecessary and the decession was made to strike first further north at Leyte. It was in this engagement that the Kamakazis first appeared, although still in relatively small numbers. MacArthur President Sergio Osmeña waded ashore with the invasion force at Leyte Gulf (October 20, 1944). The American Army forces advanced steadily. The Japanese resisted, but could not match American fire power. The most serious Japanese resistence occurred at sea. The resulting naval engaement following on Battle of the Philippones Sea is commonly referred to as the Battle of Leyte Gulf. It was the largest sea battle ever fought and resulted in the destruction of the Japanese fleet as an effective fighting force. This opened the way for the land campaign. Further landings occurred at Ormoc (December 7, 1944).

The Philippines

The Philippines Islands are an archipelago south of Taiwan and north of Borneo. Gepgraphically it is the northeastern section of the Malayan Archipelago. There are about 7,000 different islands, but only about half are permanently inhabited. The largest and most populated island is Luzon. The Philippines in 1940 had a population of about 19 million (I hae seen estimates as high as 30 million) people. Manila was the capital and largest port. Other important cities were Cebu, Davao, and Zamboanga.

Historical Background

Thec first European to reach the Philippines was Magellan (1521). The Philippines was conquered by Spain. The conquest began with Miguel Lópezde Legaspi (1564). The Islands were important primarily to support Spain's trade with China. As Spainish power declined in the 18th century, the importanvce of religious orders invcreased. An independence movement appeared in the 19th century led by José Rizal. The Philippines was targeted by the Americans during the Spanish American War (1898). Admiral Dewey seized the Islands after the Battle of Manila Bay with an antiquated Spanish fleet and shore batteries. Spain formally ceeded the OPhilippines to the United States in the the Treaty of Paris (1898). Future American president William Howard Taft was sent to the Philippines to serve as a colonial governor. The Americans fought a guerilla war with Fiipinos who had expected the Americans to help set up an independent government. The movement was led by Emilio Aguinaldo.

Rising Japanese Threat

Political developments in Japan during the 1920s and 30s brought into power in Japan a highly nationalistic government dominated by the military. Large sums were spent on the military creating powerful naval, army and airforces. Some technical support for military weapons, especilly aircraft, was obtained from Germany. Japan already had Asian colonies: Formosa (Taiean), Korea, and Chinese enclaves. The Japanese sized the Chinese province of Manchuria (1931) and then invaded China proper (1937). The Philippines located south of Taiwan was an obbvious potential target of the Japanese which was aggresively seeking to expand its colonial empire. This was especially true after President Roosevelt embargoed oil exports to Japan. The most obvious source of oil for the Japanese was the Dutch East Indies (DEI) and the Philippines was located between Japn and the DEI.

Commonwealth of the Philippines (1935)

The Commonwealth of the Philippines was established with M.L. Quezon as the first Filipino President (November 15, 1935). This was the first step toward granting independence to the Philippines. The first president of the Philippines was Manuel L. Quezon. The plan was for the Philippines to become independent after a 10-year transitional period. The date was set for July 4, 1946.

Strategic Importance

The Philippine Islands were of imense strategic importance in the Pacific. The Japanese with their powerful navy eyed the resources of Southeast Asia. Of particular importance were the petroleum resources of the Dutch East Indies (modern Indonesia). The Philippines Islands set astride maritine routes between Japan and the colonies they planned to seize. In addition, the United States, the only country capable of effectively opposing Japan'sc expansion, had army, navy and air bases bases in the Philippines. Japanese expansion into Southeast Asia and the South Pacific was impossible without possession of the Philippines.

Military Preparations

America in the 1930s began to prepare for Philippines Independence. Commonwealth status had been the first step. President Quezon had known MacArthur since they were both young men. MacArthur term as Chief of Staff ended (October 1935). When the Commonwealth of the Philippines achieved semi-independent status in 1935, President Quezon asked MacArthur to supervise the creation of a the new Philippine Army. MacArthur decided not to retire, but to remain on the active list as a major general. President Roosevelt allowed MacArthur to accept the Fillipino offer. The Roosevelt Administration was becoming increasingly concerned about Japan's military buildup and aggressive policies in China. The President began to worry about a possible Japanese invasion of the Philippines when America left. MacArthur thus went to the Philippines to assist in building its new army (October 1935). MacArthur retired from active duty (1937) when Quezon promoted him to Field Marshal of the Philippine Army. (MacArthur is the only American military officer ever to hold the rank of field marshal. General Marshal when the idea was raised, objected, not wanting to be call Marshal Marshall.) As relations with the Japanese deteriorated, especially the Japanese occupation of Indo-China, President Roosevelt recalled MacArthur to active duty as a major general (July 1941). He promoted him to a lieutenant general the next day. The President obtained Congressional appropriates to mobilize a substantial Pilippino Army in the U.S. Army as a major general and named him commander of United States Armed Forces in the Far East. The President also approved strengtening the Philippines air defenses with 100 of the new B-17 Flying Fortress bombers. MacArthur deployed his forces on the two largest islands (Luzon and Mindanao). He reported to Chief of Staff George C. Marshall that his force of 135,000 soldiers and 227 assorted fighters provided a formidable stronghold in the Pacific--the "key or base point" for America (October 1941). After Pearl Harbor, the President promoted him to four star general.

Pearl Harbor (December 1941)

Japanese Invasion (December 1941)

A powerful Japanese carrier force attacked the U.S. Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor (December 7, 1941). The next day Japanese air strikes on the Philippines destroyed about half of the American planes on the Philippines. tHis rendered an effective defense of the Islands impossible. MacArthur has to be held accountable as new of the strike on Pear Harbor provided adequate time to prepare for the Japanese air attacks on Filippino air bases. The Japanese Army invaded nprthern Luzon and secured air bases. The major Japanese landings were conducted by the 14th Army at Lingayen Gulf (December 22, 1941) and raced for Manila. MacArthur with a smaller force around Manila was in danger of being cut off and decided to retire to Batan, a defensible peninsula, with the fortress of Corregidor at its pont. He was not able, however, to bring adequaute amunition and supplies. He was not aware of the extent of the destruction of Pearl or the overwealming Japanese superority in carriers. He thought that the American fleet coukd break through with supplies and reinforcements. The soldiers on Batan put up a valiant fight with meager resources. President Roosevely personally ordered MacArthur to leave Bataan and go to Australia to take command of Allied ground forces in the Pacific theater--forces which at the time were virtually non existent (February 22, 1942). General Jonathan Wainright with 11,000 American and Filippino soldiers held out hopeing for relief. The men on Batan were forced to surrender when amunitioin ran out (April 9). They were subjected to a brutal death march. Japanese officers used the slowly moving lines of prisoners as targets for their swords. After the fall of Corregedor (May 1942), the Japanese completed the occupation of the Islands.

Internment of American Civilians

America acuired the Philippines Islands from Spain in the Spanish American War (1898). It was America's primary experience with colonialism. After a bloody insurgency, the Philippines became a quiet American outpost in the Pacific. A small number of American military and civilians lived in the Philippines. The civilian included government administrators, militry dependents, business people, missionaries, and teachers. Many became very attached to the Philippinrs and Filipino people. It was very clear by 1940, especially after President Roosevelt embargoed oil exports to Japan that war with Japan was likely. It is unclear why so many American civilians stayed in the Philippines. The War Department ordered civilan dependents home. Why many stayed is unclear. Apparently some did not want to leave their husbands. There are other indications that Ameican officials in the Philippines sought to delasy or prevent dependants from returning to America. Their motivations are unclear, but some apparently believed that their presence strengthened the american commitment to the defense of the Philippines. Other civilian dependents apparently believed that America could defend the Islands, especially when President Roosevelt moved the Pacific Fleet forward to Pear Harbor. Civilians in the Philippines like many other Amerians underestimated the military potential of Japan, especially the Imperial Navy. Whatever the reasons, at the time of Pearl Harbor, there were about 6,000 Americans in the Islands. The Japanese seized four U.S. territories (Wake, Guam, two Aleutiansin islands (Attu and Kiska), and the Philippines during World War II. The Philippines at the time was a Commonwealth which the United States was preparing for independence. It had by far the largest number of American civilians interned by the Japanese. The Japanese after invading the Philippines quickly rounded up American civilians and interned them. The Japanese set up internment camps on Luzon and other islands. The largesrt and best known was Santo Tomas. Some of the military POWs were transported off the Islands for slave labor at other locations. The civilian internees were kept in the Philippines. The liberation of these camps after the American invasion beginning at Leyte (October 1944) is one of the most emotional acconts of the Philippines campaign.

Japanese Occupation

The Japanese internment of American civilians as well as Allied civilians in other areas is a poorly described subject. Even less well covered is the Japanese treatment of the local population in occupied countries. The Japanese announced they planne to grant independence and set up a pupet regime to work with. Much propaganda was made of this. In fact the Japanese retained total control of the Islands and no real political activity was permitted. The Filipino people suffered greviously under Japanese occupation. The Japanese press ganged large numbers of Filipinos into slave labor camps. Filipino women were forced to work in brothels operated by the Japanese military.

Filipino Republic (1943-45)

Supreme Court Justice Jose P. Laurel who had been wonded in an attempted assasination became the president of the Japanese-sponsored Republic. The National Assembly voted for him (September 25, 1943). Benigno Aquino Sr. the father of Ninoy and the head of Kalibapi, was elected Speaker. The motivation of the men associated with the Japanese is unclear. Laurel seemed to believe that it was in the best interest of the Filipino people to cooperate with the occupying power. I am less sure about Aquino and Vargas. It should have been clear by 1943 that the war was no going well for the Japanese. They may have felt that had committed to the Japanese in 1942 and it was now too late to turn back. The Japanese flew the three most prominent Fhilipino leaders (Laurel, Aquino, and Jorge Vargas) to Tokyo. They were decorated by Emperor Hirohito. Premier Hideki Tojo briefed them on the plan for Philippine Independence within the Japanese Co-Propsperity Zone. Premier Tojo demanded that the Philippine Government declare war on the United States and Great Britain. Dr. Laurel with considerable courage refused to comply and explained to Tojo that few Filipinos would support this and that it would weaken his government. the Japanese-sponsored Republic was installed (October 14, 1943).

Fhilipino Resistance

The brutality of the Japanese occupation helped fuel an effective Resistance campaigns carried out by guerillas which had achieved control of substantial areas. The Japanese, however, controlled the population centers, especially on Leyte and Luzaon. The Americans delivered some supplies to the Fhilipino guerillas by submarine as well as operatives to help coordinate the canpaign. Most Filipinos were steadfastly loyal to the United States. This was in part because even before the Japanese invasion, America was moving toward Filippino independence. More than any thing it was the stark Japanese brutality that drove the Filippino to resist the Japanese.

Battle of the Phillipes Sea (June 1944)

The collapse of Japanese air power in the battle of the Philippines Sea open the way for an American strike into the center of the Japanese Empire.

American Strategy

Admiral Chester Nimitz, US Pacific Commander and Admiral Ernest King, the Chief of Naval Operations, preferred targetting Formosa (Taiwan), but MacArthur eventually prevailed with his insistence that America must retun to the Philippines. He considered his vow to return a pledge to the Philippinp people that had to be honored. Some how his vow, "I shall return." sems less approaptiate than "We shall return", but it was pure MacArthur and he convinced President Roosevelt.

Mindanao

MacArthur had targeted the southern-most Philippine island of Mindanao as te first target. Reports from resistance fighters and American pilots, however, revealed that the Japanese were not heavily defending large areas of the Mindanao. It was thus decided to strike at the more important island of Leyte futher north. After the fighting on Leyte and Luzon, General Robert Eichelberger commanding the U.S. 8th Army landed on Mindanao (March 10) and began the liberation of the southern Philippines, including Panay, Cebu, Negros and Bohol. These operations were much less strongly opposed by the weak Japanese forces on Mindanao and the other southern islands.

Kamakazis

It was in the Philippines campaign that the Kamakazis first appeared, although still in relatively small numbers. The greatest use was at Ormoc (December 1945).

Battle of Leyte Gulf (October 1944)

The most serious Japanese resistence occurred at sea. The resulting naval engaement following on Battle of the Philippones Sea is commonly referred to as the Battle of Leyte Gulf. The Imperial Navy which had been mauled in the Philippines Sea months earlier felt compeled to resist the American invasion of the Pgilippines. The result was the largest and most complex sea battle ever fought. Admiral Soemu Toyoda, Commander in Chief of the Combined Fleet, deployed the still pperful Japanese Navy in three groups. Vice Admiral Takeo Kurita commanded the central force. Vice Admiral Jisaburo Ozawa commanded the northern force. The Japanese hoped that Ozawa's fleet of carriers but few planes would draw the poweful elements of the 3rd Fleet away from Leyte so the central and southern force could attack the American landing force at Leyte Gulf. The ruse worked. While Admiral Thomas Kinkaid's 7th Fleet destroyed the southern force, Admiral William Halsey with virtually his entire forece of 64 ships raced to engage Ozawa (October 24). Halsey took all his heavy elements with him and left the San Bernardino Strait unprotected. Kurita who had initially been turned back with heavy losses, raced through the Straits and south toward the invasion beaches where a 175,000 man invasion force and cargo ships were vulnerable. Aight force of destroyers and escort carriers (Taffy 1, 2, 1nd 3) engaged the Japanese battleships and heavy cruisers at great loss and somehow turned Kurita back in one of the most daring engagements in naval history. The outcome of the battle was the virtual destruction of the Japanese fleet as an effective fighting force. The Imperial Navy not only failed in its efforts to halt the American invasion, but was forced to withdraw from Philippine waters (October 25). This meant that the Japanese Army in the Philippines could no longer be supplied. Without the Imperial Navy, the Japanese position in the Philippines was untenable. In addition, the Japanese lost 40 ships sunk (including four carriers, three battleships, and ten cruisers) and 46 damaged as well as 405 planes destroyed.

Liberation (1944-45)

The American Liberation of the Philippine Islands began in Leyte, setting off the largest battle in the history of naval warfare. The Philippino people suffered greviously under Japanese occupation. This helped fuel an effective Resistance campaigns carried out by guerillas which had achieved control of substantial areas. The Japanese, however, controlled the population centers, especially on Leyte and Luzaon. The Navy preferred targetting Formosa (Taiwan), but MacArthur eventually prevailed with his insistence that America must retun to the Philippines. He considered his vow to return a pledge to the Philippinp people that had to be honored. Some how his vow, "I shall return" seems less approaptiate than "We shall return", but it was pure MacArthur and he convinced President Roosevelt. Reports from resistance fighters and American pilots revealed that the Japanese were not heavily defending large areas of the Islands. The inasion of Mindanao was considered unecessary and the decession was made to strike first further north at Leyte. It was in this engagement that the Kamakazis first appeared, although still in relatively small numbers. MacArthur President Sergio Osmeña waded ashore with the invasion force at Leyte Gulf (October 20, 1944). The American Army forces advanced steadily. The Japanese resisted, but could not match American fire power. The most serious Japanese resistence occurred at sea. The resulting naval engaement following on Battle of the Philippones Sea is commonly referred to as the Battle of Leyte Gulf. It was the largest sea battle ever fought and resulted in the destruction of the Japanese fleet as an effective fighting force. This opened the way for the land campaign. Further landings occurred at Ormoc (December 7, 1944). Then the fighting moved to Luzon. The Americans finally reach the main island of Luzon with landings at Lingayen Gulf (January 9, 1945). The initial American landings were unopposed. Japanese Imperial Army General Tomoyuki Yamashita had been tasked with the defense of the Philippines.

Leyte (October 1944)

U.S. Army rangers began the invasion of Leyte (October 17). As the U.S. Army invasion proceeded inland the soldiers were supported by the planes from Taffy 1, 2, and 3. A 2- day naval bombardment was followed by landings of the 6th Army under General Walter Krueger (October 22). MacArthur President Sergio Osmeña waded ashore with the main invasion force at Leyte Gulf (October 20??, 1944). The American Army forces advanced steadily. The Japanese resisted, but could not match American fire power. The destriction of the Japaese fleet in the naval engagement opened the way for the land campaign. The Armericans pushed the Japanese 35th Army out of Luzon's central valley and into Leyte's mountain backbone. Bitter fighting ensued as the Americans pushed the Japanese north. Further landings occurred at Ormoc, an important port (December 7, 1944). The kamikazes appeared in substantial numbers at Ormoc. The Japanese had prepared fortified positions supported with heavy artillery. Ormoc fell (December 10).

Luzon (January 1945)

The Americans finally reach the main island of Luzon with landings at Lingayen Gulf (January 9, 1945). The initial American landings were unopposed. Japanese Imperial Army General Tomoyuki Yamashita had been tasked with the defense of the Philippines. He was one of the Japanese's most effective generals. He devised the plan for defeating Percivel at Singapore and became jnown as tghe Tiger of Malayia. He has been side tracked because of differences with Tojo, but was assigned to defend the Phippines. He realized that he could not stop the Americam landings at Lingayen Gulf and to oppose them would exposed his force to devestating air attacks when they retired into the hills. He conceived of a defense based using the mountaneous teraine in the interior using caves, pillboxes, and artillery to shield his force from American firepower and to cause as high American casualties as possible. The Japanese strategy at this point had become to make the American pursuit of the War so costly that they would not dare invade the Home Islands. MacArthur pushed toward Manila. Yamashita conducted a skillfull defense, but within a month the Americans had crossed Luzon's Central Plain and were approaching Manila. Yamashita at this time evacuated Manila for defenses prepared in the mountains. He left troops in Manila to take a toll on and tie down the advancing Americans. Admiral Sanji Iwabuchi commanded the force of 16,000-19,000 mostly Royal Marines in Manila. I am not sure what his prders were. What ever the orders, cut off by the Americans, the Japanese turned on the defenseless civilian population of Manila. The Japanese targeted and killed an estimated 100,000 Fhilippino civilians in an outporing of mindless violence which has become known as the Rape of Manila. The city had to be taken block by block in vicious hand to hand combat. Iwabuchi and almost his entire force were killed. Manila finally fell March 4). Yamashita with a force of about 50,000-65,000 soldiers resisted in the hills north of Manila. MacArthur declared the Philippines secure (June 30, 1945). Yamashita continued fighting, however, until the the Emperor ended the War (August 15). Yamashita surrendered (September 2).

General Yamashita

Yamashita was tried for war crimes in 1946. The trial was held before the larger Japanese War Crimes trials and were under MacArthur's control. Yamashita was blamed for Iwabuchi's attrocities in Manila. He was found guilty and hanged.

Independence (July 4, 1946)

The Philippines was to be a staging area for Operation Olympus, the planned invasion of the Japanese Home Islands. After the War ended, the United States granted substantial sums to the new Filippino Government. The United States kept its committment and the Philippines became an independent country on July 4, 1946.

Sources

Created: June 4, 2004
Last updated: 4:32 AM 4/28/2008