** Burma ethnicity








Burma/Myanmar: Ethnicity


Figure 1.--The Muslim Rohingya are a Burmese minority living in the Arakan (western Burma). The Burmese Nationsality Law classified the Rohingya as Resident Aliens. And the Army in recent years has rounded up and deported some 0.6 million Rohingya, often mistreating the people involved, to Bangladesh. It is not clear why the Rohingya are being treated so brutally. It has been the hill tribes that have organized militias and fought the government for years.

Burma is a multi-ethnic country. The majority of the country Burmese or Bamar (nearly 70 percent). The two major minoritirs are the Shan (9 percent) and Kayin/Karen (7 percent). These are the only groups exceeding 5 percent of the population. Other important ethnic groups include the Rakhine, Chinese, Mons, Kachin, and over 100 smaller groups like the Nagas. One interesting tribal group is the Moken, a seafaring people. Etnicity was not a major issue during the British colonial era. People could move within the Raj and then into Burma when the British began to establish control there. After World War II, Britain granted independence to Burma (1948). The Burmese Government had the task of creating a Burmese nationality beyond the Burmese majority. The Government began recognizing groups they considered Burmese and non-Burmese. Groups identified as non-Burmese included Burmese Chinese, Panthsys (Chinese Muslims), Burmese Indians, Anglo-Burmese, and Gurka. The later two groups are a small part of the Burmese population, but may amont to nearly 2 million people outside the country. Britain as in India attempted to turn over power to a parlimentary democracy. The military dominated by thecethnic Burmese seized power in the guise of single-party socialist system (1962). General Ne Win was intent on fashioning a Burmese nationalism that united the many disparate ethnic groups under Burmese control amd leadership. The question of citizenship became a major issue in Burma. The Military Junta issued a Citizenship Law which set up different levels of citzenship abd in doing so institutionalized a social hierarchy. It was part of Burmafication/Myanmfication that included the country's name change to Myanmar. The law was part of a series of actions taken by the nationalist Burmese government meant to shore up Burmese ethnic power. The law created three levels of citizenship: 1) Citizens, 2) Associate Citizens, 3) Naturalized Citizens, and 4) Resident Alien Non-citizens. The first level of citzenship applied to ethnic Burmans and members of most of the ethic minoirirties (Shan, Karen, and a long list of smaller groups). Citizenship was granted to the ethnic group present in Myanmar prior to 1823 when the British seized the Arakan (far western Burma bordering on modern Bangladesh). Burmese with 'one grandparent' or pre-1823 ancestor, who was a citizen of another country' were assigned the lower status Assiociuate Citizens. Naturalized Citizens were defined as those who can “provide ‘conclusive evidence’ that he or his parents entered and resided in Burma before independence in 1948. Persons who have at least one parent who holds one of the three types of Burmese citizenship are also eligible.” Resident Aliens have no citizenship rights at all. As a result, they cannot hold public office, move freely about the country, or enroll in higher education. The most notable group excluded are the Muslim Rohingya in the Arakan who as a result have been rendering stateless. They numbered over a million, some 0.6 million of which have been rounded up and deported to Bangladesh in often brutal actions. The Burmese Governent claims they came to Burma during the British colonial era and thus are not Burmese. The Rohingya claim and are backed up with some archeological evidence that they have lived in the Arakan for centuries. It is not entirely clear why the Burmese Government has targeted the Rohingya. Islam may be the principal reason. The community's opposition to the Citizenship Law may be a related factor.

Issue of Etnicity

Etnicity was not a major issue during the British colonial era. People could move wihin the Raj and then into Burma when the British began to establish control there. After World War II, Britin granted independence to Burma (1948). The Burmese Government had the task of creating a Burmese nationality beyond the Burmese majority. The Government began recognizing groups they considered Burmese and non-Burmese. Groups identified as non-Burmese included Burmese Chinese, Panthsys (Chinese Muslims), Burmese Indians, Anglo-Burmese, and Gurka. The later two groups are a small part of the Burmese population, but may amont to nearly 2 million people outside the country. Britain as in India attempted to turn over power to a parlimentary democracy. The military dominated by the ethnic Burmese seized power in the guise of single-party socialist system (1962). General Ne Win was intent on fashioning a Burmese nationalism that united the many disparate ethnic groups under Burmese control amd leadership. The question of citizenship became a major issue in Burma. The Military Junta issued a Citizenship Law which set up different levels of citzenship abd in doing so institutionalized a social hierarchy. It was part of Burmafication/Myanmfication that included the country's name change to Myanmar. The law was part of a series of actions taken by the nationalist Burmese government meant to shore up Burmese ethnic power. The law created three levels of citizenship: 1) Citizens, 2) Associate Citizens, 3) Naturalized Citizens, and 4) Resident Alien Non-citizens. The first level of citzenship applied to ethnic Burmans and members of most of the ethic minorirties (Shan, Karen, and a long list of smaller groups). Citizenship was granted to the ethnic group present in Myanmar prior to 1823 when the British seized the Arakan (far western Burma bordering on modern Bangladesh). Burmese with 'one grandparent' or pre-1823 ancestor, who was a citizen of another country' were assigned the lower status Assiociuate Citizens. Naturalized Citizens were defined as those who can “provide ‘conclusive evidence’ that he or his parents entered and resided in Burma before independence in 1948. Persons who have at least one parent who holds one of the three types of Burmese citizenship are also eligible.” Resident Aliens have no citizenship rights at all. As a result, they cannot hold public office, move freely about the country, or enroll in higher education. The most notable group excluded are the Muslim Rohingya in the Arakan who as a result have been rendering stateless.

The Burmese/Bamar

The majority of the people of Myramar are etnic Burmese or Bamar (nearly 70 percent). The Bamar or Burman are a Southeast Asian Sino-Tibetan ethnic group. They live primarily in the Irrawaddy River basin and speak the Burmese language, the official language of Myanmar. Bamar customs and national identity are the core of the broader Burmese culture. The State Law and Order Restoration Council (mikitary givernment) changed the countyry's name from Burma to Myanmar (1989). Despite the name change, the people are still known as the Burmese and speak Burmese. This is a Sino-Tibetan language. The Burmese-speaking people first migrated from present-day Yunnan, China into the Irrawaddy valley with its huge agricukltural potential (7th century AD). The Bamar gradually absorbed other ethnic groups in the Irraswaddy Valledy like the Pyu and Mon. [Myint-U, pp. 51-52.] Other groups were drivven into the hills with less agricultural potential. Modern DNA studies prob=vide insights into the evolution of Bamar people. One study describes the Bamar as 'typical Southeast Asian' people wuth Northeast Asian and Indian influences. The genetic pool of the Bamar is more diverse than other groups present in Myramar, specially the Karen. They Bmar are genetically closer to the Yi and Mon people than to the Karen. [Summerer, et. al..] Early Chinese sources report that Sino-Tibetan-speaking tribes inhabitted what is now the Irrawaddy River Vally (9th century). The majority of the Bamar pracice a kind of fusion of Burmese folk religion and Theravada Buddhism which reached Burma from beogboring India. Unlike India, BNuddhism was not replaced by Hinduism.

Minorities

Burma is a multi-ethnic country. The two major minoritirs are the Shan (9 percent) and Kayin/Karen (7 percent). These are the only groups exceeding 5 percent of the population. Other important ethnic groups include the Rakhine, Chinese, Mons, Kachin, and over 100 smaller groups like the Nagas.

Shan


Karen / Kayin

The Karen or Kayin people are one of the largest indigenous tribal groups of Southeast Asia. Karen is the overall term for several Sino-Tibetan language speaking ethnic groups. The Karen are primarily found in southern and southeastern Burma, Hey constitute about 7 percent of the overall Burmese population. A smaller number of Karen also reside in Thailand, mostly in the frontier region along the southern Burma-Thailand border north of the peninsula. The total population is unknown, but may be as high as nearly 15 million people. One of the best knowm Karen groups are the Red Karen (Karenni) which consists of the Padaung tribe. The Karen live along the Burma-Thailand border. The Karens were farmers who cultivated the nutrient rich soils of southern Burma and western Thailand. The traditional religion was Animism and Buddhism, although a substantial number chave converted to Christinity. Some 30 percent of Karen, including many Karen leaders are Christian. There are two principal Karen groups: the Sgaws (S'waw) and the Pwos. The Karens are best known for their colorful traditional clothes. There are different styles among tge different Karen groups. They also have energetic, celbeatory festival dances. They are most notable for the metal neck rings that the women wear. The Karen were generally protected under British colonial rule. In fact the Karen were in part a creation of the British. The term Karen is an term describing a heterogeneous group of ethnic tribes that befire the arival of the British had very little in common,including language, culture, or religion. The current pan-Karen ethnic identity obly began to develop with the arrival of the British. Missionaries began wotking in the Karen areas, converting many to Christianity. British colonial policies helped build a Karen identity. Some of the Karen-speaking Christians began promoting a distinct identity from their non-Christian neighbors. The British granted them some special privileges, including military recruitment. Christian Karens organized the Karen National Union (KNU). The siutuation changed dramatically with the Japanese World War II invasion (1942). Brutal Japanese occupation policies alienated the Karen. The Japanese for their part saw the Karen as pro-British. The Japanese helped organize the Burmese Independence Army (BIA). Many Burmese belkieved the Japanese who claimed to be ousting the British in a desire to create an independent Burma. The men who joiined the BIA tended to be anti-British and tended to see the Karen with their pro-British attitudes as a opposition group. The Japanese and the BIA committed a series of brutal attriocities, wiping out whole Karen villages. Japanese Colonel Suzuki Keiji, commander of the BIA, helped defuse the situation to an extent. The Karen Landswere crosed by the Japanese Burma-Thai ralway. The Karen were among the local people dragooned into forced labor and large numbers perished under brutal working conditions. The Karen helped the British to drive thge Japanese out oif Burma (1944-45). Burmese-Karen tensions flared again with independence (1949). The KNU launched a guerilla war against the Burmese government. The Burmese rmy used very brutal tactics to supress the Karen insurgency. The KNU because of the Burmese Army supression tactics has changed its objective to a federal system with a degree of autonomy.

Moken

One interesting tribal group is the Moken, a seafaring people. A destinctive Thai and Burmese tribal group group is the Moken. This is the term they used to describen themsleves. Other terms used to describe them in Thailand are the Mawken or Morgan. The Burmese call them the Moken Selung, Salone, or Chalome. This includes the Mergui Archipelago off the soutern peninsukar area of Burma. Moken is also used to describe all of the Austronesian speaking tribes who inhabit the coast and islands in the Andaman Sea on the western (peninsular) coast of Thailand and Burma. The Austronesian origins are a matter of some academic debate. For years ethnographers have theorized Taiwanese origins, but recent DNA ecidence suggests a much more longer operiod in the islands of Oceania that previously believed. Other groups often described as Moken are: the Moklen (Moklem), the Orang Sireh (Betel-leaf people) and the Orang Lanta. The Orang Lanta are a more recent addition, a hybridized group formed when the Malay people settled the Lanta islands which the proto-Malay Orang Sireh inhabited. The Urak Lawoi are sometimes groupoed within the Moken, but they are linguistically and ethnically different. They are ethically Malay.Way of life Popularly they are referred to in Thailand as the 'sea people' or 'watrer people'. We have also noted 'sea gypsies' being used. They are an Austronesian ethnic group composed of about 2,500 people. As their names sugget, they pursue a sea-based culture. They speak a destinctive language in the Austronesian language family rather than Thai. The Moken culture and livlihood is based on the sea. They live in boats in many coastal areas. They harvest sea foot, both fish and other seafood as well as seaweed. They used traditional methods,mostly spears and nets. What is not consumed immdediately is dried on the top if their boats. They brter their catch (peimarily the dried fish) in local markets for what they cannot produce themselves. Life is somewhat seasonal. During the Monsoon season the sea is to rough for the Moken to venture out on their small boats. They use the inactive time to build or repair their boats and nets. At this time they may build huts on land. One sourse suggests that the children from an early age spend so much time diving underwater that that they are able to see better underwater than on the surface. An accommodation of their visual focus seems to have occurred. [Travis, pp. 308-09.] As a result of Burmese policies after independence to pursue socialist, isolationist economic policies, Burma fell behind Thailand in economic development. The Thai economomy embracing free market capitalism wa able to achieve significant growth and modernization. As a result, the Moken in Burma are less assimilated. They still exhibit their traditional nomadic life-style, spending most of their lives at sea searching on small hand-crafted wooden boats which they call kabang. The boats are used not only to seach for fish and other seafood, but also as living accoimodations. Bith the Burmese abnd Thai Governments have attempted to assimilate the Moken. The Thais have had more success, but mnu Moken continue to prefer their traditional life style. The Moken because of their greater familiarity with the sea, managed to survuve the devestating 2004 Tusnami that devestated comminitirs throughout the Andaman Sea. A few Moken settlkements, however, were hard hit.

Rohingya

Rohingya Muslims are largest percentage of Muslims in Myanmar. Most live in Rakhine state a coastal state on the Bay of Bengal, the northren tip of which borders onnbordering on Bangladesh. The Rohingya have do not speak Burmese. They have their own language and culture which differs from the majority national cilture. Not all Musilms in Myanmar speak Rohingya, especially outside of Rakhine (meaning way from the coast). The Rohingya maintain that they have descended from Arab traders and other groups who have been present in modern Mayaanmar for centuries. There is no doubtv that some do. Arab traders began settling in the Aralan (basically Rakhine state) (7th century). The Arabs began converting the local population to Islam which means that some Rohingya are descenced from the orifibalk population even though they are Muslim. [Syed Islam , p. 327.] At the time the population of what is now Banhadesh was not Muslim. This is the same process that brought Islam to Malaysia and Indonesia. There is a difference though. Burmna Myanmar borders on Bangledesh amd the Rohingya do seem similar to the Begalis, certainly much more so than Bamar. Just when this process took place is an open question. Yhere is evidence of population movementfrom Bngal inyo the Arakan. The Rakhines were one of the tribes of the Burmese Pyu city-states. Thesepeople began migrating into the to Arakan through the Arakan Mountains (9th century). The Rakhines established founded cities in the valley of the Lemro River (Sambawak I, Pyinsa, Parein, Hkrit, Sambawak II, Myohaung, Toungoo and Launggret). There has been a troubled history between the Bamar and the Rohingya. Burmese forces invaded the Rakhine cities (1406). The Rakhine rulers sought assistance of Bengal which by the time was Muslim. [Topich, pp. 17–22.] Some Rohingya sought refuge in Bengal. As a result there is evidence Bengali Muslim settlements in the Arakan (1430–34). The hostile history has continued into the midern era. The Bamar invaded the Araklan again (1785). There were terribke atricities and many dled to Bengal. At the time, the British were consolidating their position in India including Bengal. After a series of wars with the Bamar, the British invaded and seized Burma (1823). The British promoted Bengali and other indian migration into Burma, but they were destinct from the Rohingya and did not speak Rohingya. The Bamar were more anti-British than the Indians causing the British to favor the Indians and Rohingya. This hightendeds already negarive attutudes toward the Rohingya. This got even worse during World War II. Jaoan conquered Burmaforcing the Bitish to withdraw into India. The Bamar at firstvwelcomed the Japanese unil they began to learn what Japanese occupation meant. With the British gone, inrtcommunal violence flkared in the Arakan between Rohingyan and Buddhist Rakhine vullages. The British launched am offensuve into the Arakan and began arming Rohingyan villages which brought Japanese repression. [Jonassohn, p. 263.] Btitain granted independence to Burma (1948). The Burmese government adopted a very restrictive policies on citizebship. The people most effected by Myramar's ethnic policies are the Muslim Rohingya in the Arakan. he Government from the beginning refused yo recognize Rohingyani citizenship. The Myanmar Government denies the Rohingya citizenship and refer to them as Bengali. The Governmenyt maintains that they are illegal immigrants from neighbioring Bangladesh. This has rendered the Rohingya stateless. They numbered over a million, some 0.6 million of which have been rounded up and deported to Bangladesh in often brutal actions. The Burmese Governent claims they came to Burma during the British colonial era and thus are not Burmese. The Rohingya claim and are backed up with some historical evidence that they have lived in the Arakan for centuries. Numbers are, however, difficult to come by. It is not entirely clear why the Burmese Government has targeted the Rohingya. Islam may be the principal reason. The community's opposition to the Citizenship Law may be a related factor. Banladesh is a poor, densely populated countryand there pribably has been immigration. This is not all the doing of the Myanmar Military. We notice that Aung San Suu Kyi, Burmeme primeminidster abd human rights activist, before she was deposed by the military made no effort to lessen repression.

Sources

Jonassohn, Kurt (1999). Genocide and gross human rights violations: in comparative perspective (Transaction Publishers: 1999)..

Myint-U, Thant. The River of Lost Footsteps--Histories of Burma (Farrar, Straus and Giroux: 2006).

Syed Islam. in Andrew T. H. Tan (ed.). A Handbook of Terrorism and Insurgency in Southeast Asia (Edward Elgar Publishing: 2009).

Summerer, Monika, Jürgen Horst, Gertraud Erhart, Hansi Weißensteiner, Sebastian Schönherr, Dominic Pacher, Lukas Forer, David Horst, Manhart Angelika, Basil Horst, Torpong Sanguansermsri, and Anita Kloss-Brandstätter. "Large-scale mitochondrial DNA analysis in Southeast Asia reveals evolutionary effects of cultural isolation in the multi-ethnic population of Myanmar," BMC Evolutionary Biology Vol. 14, No. 1 (2014).

Topich, William J. and Keith A. Leitich. The History of Myanmar (ABC-CLIO: 2013).








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