Mongolian History: Independence (1911-24)


Figure 1.--

Leading intellectuals and statesmen after the fall of the Manchu Empire declared Outer Mongolia independent (1911). Ourter Mongolia had never been integrated in the Chinese Empire to the degree of Inner Mongolia. The new Nationalist Government rejected independence, but did not immedistely have the force to intervene. Independent Outer Mongolia was organized as a theocracy, similar to developments in Tibet at the same time. The Bogd, Buddhist religious leader, became a secular political figure. A Mongoloan delegation headed by T. Namnansüren traveled to Tsarist Russia in an effort to obtain support for the new state (1913). There was little international support or even recognition of the Outer Mongolian government. After the outbreak of World War I, Russia, China, and Mongolia officials met in Kyakht and signed an agreement recognizing the autonomy, but not the independence of Mongolia (1915). Despite that agreement, the Chinese Nationalists cancelled the Kyakht Agreement invaded Mongolia to restablish Chinese authority (1919). They were concerned about the Russian Revolution and possible Soviet invasion of Mongolia. Mongolian leaders organized limited resistance. As part of the Russian Revolution and subsequent Civil War which spilled into Siberia, Outer Mongolia broke away from China (1921). Mongolia managed to briefly reestablish its independence proclaimed by Sukhbaatar. A theocratic state was restablished, but the authority of Bogd VIII was limited by secular authorities. Bogd VIII died (1924).

Mongolia under the Manchus (17th-19th centuries)

The Manchus conquered first Inner and then Outer Mongolia, incorporating them in their new empire. The Manchu emperor thus became the ruler of the Mongols and of Mongolia. The Manchus did not replace the nobility. The Mongol nobles retained their place in Mongol society and traditional titles. The Manchus did proceed to implement an elaborate administrative system in Mongolia for the first time, both to govern and tax. The Manchus intervened more in Inner than Outer Mongolia and implemented an administeative system more along Chinese lines. The Manchus organized the 24 traditional provinces into six large regions. The Manchu appointed a governor to oversee Outer Mongolia. The governer ruled from Uliastai. Outer Mongolia was divided in to three provinces (1691). The provinces were: Tusheet khan province, Zasagt khan province and Setsen khan province. A fourth province was added (Sain khan province (1725). This was to reward lord Sain for hisassistance in the war with the Oirads who had earlier broken away from the Mongols. The Emperor appointed another govenor to rule centrl Mongolia from Huree. Eventually the tribes in western Mongolia were forced to also recognize the Emperor's authority. The emperor appointed a govenor in Howd (1762). The Mongols had embraced Buddhism during the era of the Lesser Khan. The Manchus as with other areas of their rule, did not seek to radically reform Mongol society, but to basically control it. They retained the Bogd (Buddhist religious keader). The Manchu created a ministy to oversee the Bogd. There was resistance to the Manchus, including number of rebellions. The most important occurred in western Mongolia, the most remote and traditional area. A group of Mongol nobels launched an uprising (1755). The leaders were Galdan boshigt, Amarsanaa, and Chingunjav. There were some initial successes. But after the Manchu mobilized and deployed a massive ar,y, it was easily crushed. Amarsanaa sought refuge in Russia. Other leaders were executed and their followers dealt with harshly. The Manchus supressed Mongol desires for autonomy. Under Manchu rule, Mongolia was entirely closed off from the outside world. Thus Mobgoliaentered the 20th century as a backward region of a traditional and declining Manchu Empire.

East Asian Power Politics (Late-19th and Early-20th centuries)

Mongolia wa surrounded by China and Russia with Japan on the prefifery. Momentous developments in these three powers would affect Mongolia's future. Mongolia in the late 19th century children was still ruled by Manchu China. The power abnd authority of the Emperor, however, was rapidly eroding. China lost the humiliating First Sino-Japanese war, vividly exposing the weakness of China (1894). One result was expanded Japanese influence in Korea and Manchuria. The Boxer rebellion exposed the weakness of the Imoperial system (1900). The Dowager Emperess was no longer able to control developments in China proper, let along in Mongolia. As a result, Mongolian leaders began to seriously consider independence. Japan unlike China pursued a rapid program of modernization and industrialization. The First Sino-Japanese war was only the first step in building a Japanese Empire. The Next was the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05) which confirmed the Japanese position in Korea and expabnded it in Manchuria. This brought the Japanese to the borders of Mongolia for the first time. The Manchu Imperial state was iver throen and the Republic of China proclaimed (1911). China became dominated by war lords and Republican officials were unable to exercise more than nominal authority in Mongolia.

Independence (1911-19)

Leading intellectuals and statesmen after the fall of the Manchu Empire declared Outer Mongolia independent (1911). Ourter Mongolia had never been integrated in the Chinese Empire to the degree of Inner Mongolia. The new Chinese Nationalist Government rejected independence, but did not immedistely have the force to intervene. Independent Outer Mongolia was organized as a theocracy, similar to developments in Tibet at the same time. The Bogd, Buddhist religious leader, became a secular political figure. A Mongoloan delegation headed by T. Namnansüren traveled to Tsarist Russia in an effort to obtain support for the new state (1913). There was little international support or even recognition of the Outer Mongolian government.

Kyakht Agreement (1915)

After the outbreak of World War I, Russia, China, and Mongolia officials met in Kyakht and signed an agreement recognizing the autonomy, but not the independence of Mongolia (1915).

Chinese Invasion (1919)

Despite that agreement, the Chinese Nationalists cancelled the Kyakht Agreement invaded Mongolia to restablish Chinese authority (1919). They were concerned about the Russian Revolution and possible Soviet invasion of Mongolia.

Renewed Independence (1921-24)

Mongolian leaders organized limited resistance. As part of the Russian Revolution and subsequent Civil War which spilled into Siberia, Outer Mongolia broke away from China (1921). Mongolia managed to briefly reestablish its independence proclaimed by Sukhbaatar. Here an important figure was Freiherr Roman Nikolai Maximillian von Ungern-Sternberg, a Russian nobelman (German-Estonian origins) and Tsarist military officer. He was one of those people who atotal failure in civilan life, but bloosomed on the battelfield. His parents could not control him and he was expelled from military school. But when World War I broke out, he proved aan effective, if brutal commander. He served in Siberia and the Eastern Front during the War. And he fought the Bolsheviks after the onset of the Revolution. Familiar wih Siberia abd cebntral Asia, he fought the Bolsheviks in the trans-Baikal for control of thecTrans-Siberial Raolway. With the Bolsheviks clearly emerging victorious in the Civil War, Ungern-Sternberg saw an opportunity in Mogolia which was trying to oust the Chinese. He adopted Mongolian clothes and styld himself as a successor to Genghis Khan. He played a majoe role uin driving the Chinese out of Urga (modern Ulaanbaatr). He attemoped to establish a protectorate with the Bogd as afigurehead. His exorbinate demands and brutality soon undermined hos position. Bolshevik forces helped to undermine his position. He was forced to flee Urga.. He saw an opportunity to establish aibetan monarchy. A Bolshevik patrol intercepted him and he was executed him. [Palmer] A theocratic state was reestablished, but the authority of Bogd VIII was limited by secular authorities. Bogd VIII died (1924).

Soviet Client State (1924-90)

The Soviet-dominated Mongolian People's Republic was declared after the death of the Bogd VIII (1924). The Chinese retained control of Inner-Mongolia. The Communists after the Revolution combined Inner Mongolia with Mongol areas of western Manchuria and the former privince of Jehol to form the the Inner Mongolian Autinomous Region. Mongolia thus became a republic for the first time and a constitution promulgated. The revolution leaders establishing the republic were supported by the Soviets and of course chose to create a Communist state. The Communists commenced to make major reforms in Mongolian society. Few countries were changed more than Mongolia which at the time was still an essentially feudal society. In an effort to create a classless society, the nobiloty with all its privliges was abloished. The new government introduced Western medicine and technologies. A modern educational system was set up, although much of the country was still nomadic pastiralists which were at first largely untouched by the reforms. The Soviets never formally annexed Mongoilia, but the country was integrated into the Soviet Empire. The Mongolian Government was controlled by the Soviets. And like the Soviet Union, Stalin subjected Mongolia to vicious purges. Thosands were executed or disappeared into the Gulag. Mongolia was the scene of a ittle-publicised, but very important engagement of World War II. Japan had seized Manchuria (1931). This brought the Japanese to the Mongolian border, but it was a poorly defined border. Japanese Army units began clashing with Mongolian border guards (1936). These small skirmishes between Japanese and Mongolians patrols gradually ecalated. With Rurope moving toward war, Stalin gave General Zukov the assignment of putting an end to these destractions. The result was the Khakhingol Incident. (The Japanese reffered to these clashes in Manchiria and China as incidents. Even the war with China was referred to as an "incident".) The result was a massive Red Army offensive and decisive defeat of the Japanese Army. This almost certainly was a factor in Japan's subsequent decesion to attack America rather than the Soviet Union. As a result, Mongolia, unlike China, Japan, and the Soviet Union was not devestated by World War II. The Chinese Government after World War II recognized the full independence of Mongolia (1945). Mongolia became regonized by the international community, although it was a Soviet puppet state. The country was admitted to the United Nations (1961). Mongolia continued as a Soviet puppet stte until the late-1980s. The end of Soviet control and fall of Communism in Eastern Europe resonated in Mongolia.

Sources

Palmer, James. The Bloody White Baron.






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Created: 8:59 AM 4/1/2009
Last updated: 8:59 AM 4/1/2009