Figure 1.--The Russians managed to conquer large areas of northern Siberia and the Far East because the indugenous tribes did not have access to firearms. To the south their advances was twaeted by Chinese armiies. The painting here is "The Conquest of Siberia" by Yermak Timofeyevich.

Russia is a huge country even after the disolution of the Soviet Union (1991). The most obvious regional division is European and Asian Russia. Russia is nornmally though of as a European country, but most of the land, but not the population, lies in Asia. The two regions are divided by the north/south oriented Ural Mountains. Russia is the only country consisting of both a European and Asian component. Russia began as an entirely European country, actually a small duchy around Miscow. There were many established states to the west and no real powerful opposition to the east--at least at the time Russia began its expansion. Russian thus expanded east just as America expanded west.

The West

Russia is nornmally thought of as a European country, even thoughn most of the land, but not the population, lies in Asia. The two regions are divided by the north/south oriented Ural Mountains. Russia is the only country consisting of both a European and Asian component. Russia began as an entirely European country, but there were many established states to the west and no real powerful opposition to the east--at least at the time Russia began its expansion.

The East

Russian thus expanded east just as America expanded west. Russian history beguns with the medieval era and the Slavs. The expansion east begins with the end of the medieval era (16th century). While European Russia has a much smaller area, it has to be noted that it is a huge part of Europe (40 percent). The significant eastward expansion of Russia into Asia began with the reign of Ivan IV--Ivan the Terrible (1547). And Russia came to include various Asian populations. Asian Russia is immense, a much larger area than European Russia, but with a much smaller population. In European Russia it's the other the oposite, smaller area and a larger population. There are two areas in Asiatic Russia: Siberia and the Far East. The regions vary somewhat with the historiography. For example, Aner-indians are often said to have origniated from Siberian tribes. But these tribes came from the Far Eastern area of modern Russia, not Siberia.

The Mongols

Russian history primarily deals with the Russian push east, but actually began with the Mongol hordes pushing west out of the Asian Steppe. The Mongols under Genghis conquered Russia, meaning the Grand Dutchy of Moscow (1237). The Mongols probably would have moved even further east had not Genghis died (1227). The Mongol Empire splintered after the death of Genghis. The Golden Horde imposed tribute on Russian principalities. The Battle of Kulikovo is seen by historians as the single most important event in medieval Russian history. It was the central event which set the stage for the emergence of Muscovy as the the core of the evolving Russian state. The Russians saw a series of dynastic quarrels after the death of khan Jani Beg (1357) weakening the Goldren Horde. Muscovy's refusal to pay tribute to the Golden Horde caused their leading general, Mamai, to organize a military campaign to bring the Russians in line. To resist the Golden Horde, the Russians needed to unite and combine their forces. Muscovy at the time was a principality, an important one, but only one of many Russian principalities. The resulting battle at Kulikovo was the beginning of the liberation of North-West Russia from Mongol rule. The Battle of Kulikovo was fought September 8, 1380. The Russians led by Dmitry Ivanovich, prince of Moscow and grand prince of Vladimir defeated the Golden Horde. It showed the developing military power of the Russians. After Kulikovo. Muscovy as a result of its military leadership rapidly emnerged as the leading Russian principality. With the new the Golden Horde was in decline (15th century). Written dicuments brgin referred to the 'Great Horde' Within its former territories, lsrgeky independent, Turkic-speaking khanates appeared . The result was that Muscovy suceeded in ending the 'Tatar Yoke" -- the Great Stand on the Ugra River (1480). Russian forces eliminated the last remanets--the Crimean Khanate (1783) and the Kazakh Khanate (1847).

Initial Expabnsion West

Various Tsars at considerable cost expanded west acquiring Swedish territory, the Baltics, Ukraine, and finally much of Poland (18th century).

Initial Expansion East

The significant eastward expansion of Russia into Asia began with the reign of Ivan IV--Ivan the Terrible (1547) and faced much less serious opposition as they conquered the area from the Urals to the Pacific. There were weak Islamic caliphates to the south and only primitive indigenous tribes to the east. The Tsaris state seized much of Siberia and then began the exploration of the northern Far East (1630s). The drive was fueled by the fur trade. Cossack detachments evebntualkly reached the the Pacific coast. They established forts and various strongholds along the way. The varius tribes which did not hace access to fire arms were forced to acceot the 'hand of the High Sovereign'. The Russians imposed a fur tax--the yasak. Russianb explorers moving east were not welcomed with open arms. Some tribes resisted and tghe Ryussuan numbers were small. The Chukchi put up a major fight. There werec also periodic uprisings by the Koryaks on the Kamchatka Peninsula. But these indugenious tribes without modern arms were in the same situation as the Native Anericans in North America. The Russians thus continued their advance into the northern regions of the Far East, eventually reaching Alaska.

Contact With China: Chinese Hegemony (18th century)

The situation was very different further south. In the Amur River basin, the Russia faced opposition from the powerful Chinese Qing (Manchu) Empire. This was the prmary resuistabce the Russians faced, r real power--China. The result was a series of battles. The Chinese defeated the Russians in the Battle of Albazin (1685). The Russians called the 'distant barbarians' reach the territory of the Daurs, a Mongol people tghgen paying tribute to China. Imperial officizlhs saw it as an invasion of China's area of influence. A Chuinese force of 5,000 men beseiged the Russian fort of Albazin on the Amur River. While a relatively small force, it was a substabtial army at the far reaches of of Tsarist and Qing territiry. The smakllk Russian force hild out until it was clear that no Tsarist relief force was coming. The Chinese won control over what is now the Russian Far East and eastern Siberia, except for the far north. This was formally recognized in the Treaty of Nerchinsk (1689). The allure of the Far East fior the Russiians was primarily the fur trade. The Russian maintained nauntauined tiny outposts on the Kamchatka Peninsula. Tsar Peter the Great commissioned Vitus Bering to conduct a naval expedition to the Far East (1724). This led to expanding prsence in the northern reaches, inckuding Alaska. China contubued to dominate the land area to the south.

Industrial Revolution (mid-18th century)

The Industrial Revolution began in Britain (mid-18th century). It fundamentally changed ecinomic structure. Until the Industrial Revolution, agricuklture was the oprimary souce of wealth. Manufacturing before the Indyustruial Revolution primarily relied on human labor, what one oerson could prodyuce. The Industrial Revolutiion intrioduced machinery and eventually powered macuinery uinto profucting. This exponntilly increased what wiorkers could produce. As the Industrial Revolution progresed, industry begame the primay source of wealth and the coountries that pursued industry and sciebce became wealthy and poowerful. This fundamentally changed the power relationship between Europe and Asia, including India and China which were major powers. While Russia was a backward European state it advanced beyond the ability of China to contain it.

Russian Hegemony (19th century)

Russia emerged from the Napoleonic Wars as a major European power. The Opium War showed China's weakness against Britain an other Europeans (1840). China was unable to contain Russian control of the Far East. Russia to steadily increased its military presence in the Amur region. Weakened by the Opium Wars with the Western powers, primarily Britain, China was forced to recognize the Amur region and the vast Ussuri territory as part of the Tsarist Empire. This was formalized in treaties (1858 and 1860). The most important of the series of bilateral agreements that formalized these acquisitions was the 1860 Convention of Beijing. Imperial China was further weakened by the Taiping Rebellion (1850-64). Russian railway constructiion consuierably stregthened its position . Russian began to impinge on China itself, especially Manchuria, in part by railroad construction into central Asia. The lack of a continuous rail line to Vladisvostock. however, was a factor in Russia's loss in the Russo-Japabese Wwar (1904-05). The continuous rail link to Vladisvistok was not completed until World War I (1916).

Japanese Hegemony (early-20th century)

With the Meiji Restoration in Japan, a new actor emerged. And unklike China, pursued a policy of rapid industrialization. Imperial Japan's first act of agreesiion was the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-95). This began to construction of the Japanese Empire. Japan gasined Taiwan and inpoetabnt influence in Korea and Manchuria. At this point, Russia and Japan vied for control of Manchuria and Korea which China was powerless to prevent. The question was settled by the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05). Japan defeated Tsarist Armies and naval forces. Japan proceeded to seize Korea (1909) and expand its influence in Manchuria. Japan formally seized and colonized Manchuria (1931). And then not content with just Manchuria launched the invasion of China proper the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937). Japan seized large areas of China and committed terrible atrocities, but could not defeat the the KMT Government with withdrew into the interior. The United States support for China outraged the Japanese. Incredably the Japanese miklitarists concluded that the best way to finally defeat China was to lauch a war with the United States, leading to surprise carruier attack on Pearl Harbor, the base of the American Pacific Fleet (1941). this has tio be among the mostv uincompetent decisions ever made by a ciuntry's leaders. As a result, the unwinable Japanese war in China morphed into the Pacific War and a war that would lead to national disaster. The War ended not only with the Americans dropping two atomic bombs on Japan, but with the Soviets declaring war on Japan and seizing Manchuria and the northern half of Korea (1945).

Soviet Hegemony (late-20th century)

Chinese Hegemony (21st century)

The Chinese-Russian relationship began to change when the Chinese Communists changed from Communist purist to market reforms, meaning not only allowing, but promoting capitalism (1970s). China followed the Asian Tigers. The result was the greates creatrion of wealth in human history. China quickly became a economic juggernaut leaving the Soviets now the Russians still not willing to embrace free markets in the economic dust. The Chinese have a vast manufacturing sector, exporting a wide array of manufactured goods around the world. Russian is only able to export raw materials, primarily energy. (A minor exception is weaponry, but even that is now in question.) The Russian Chinese border once separated a richer and more developed Russia from poverty-stricken China. Today that situation has completely reversed. It is the Chinese side of the border that is far richer and more developed. And one wonders about the future. The Chinese recall that until the 19th century, the Russian Far East and parts of eastern Siberia was Chinese territory. We currently have the situation that north of the border is a largely unpopulated, resource rich Russian Siberia and Far East. South of the border is densely populated and resource hungry China. And a China that is no longer dependent on the Russians for technology, even advanced weaponry. Now it is the Chinese who not only lead the Russians in weapon quantity and quality, as well as a military that has not been hollowed out by corruption and economic failure. The Russians have even had to seek military support from North Korea and China to conduct its war against a small Ukrainian Army (2022). The Chunese focus is currently on Taiwan. As Chinese power grows and Russian power declines, it seems likely that increasuingly the Chinese will begin think of thev list territories to the noth bnd the huge repositiory of badkly needed natural reources.

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Created: 6:01 PM 10/5/2022
Last updated: 6:01 PM 10/5/2022