** Cold War: German political mileau 1945-48








Cold War: German Political Mileau (1945-53)


Figure 1.--The Cold War began in Germany and would ultumately be decided by the German people. From an early point after the NAZI surrender (May 1945), Germans began fleeing the Soviet Occupation Zone which would become East Germany. This began before the economic differencs developed between the two zones. And it occurred despite substantial support for Communism and Socialism in Germany. This unidentified woman and her two children are three of the many Germans that fled the Soviet Occupation Zone and subsequently East Germany. The press caption read, "German refugee camp: Every person is registered when admitted to the refugee camp at the outskirts of Uelzen, small town in Lower Saxony in the British Zone of Germany. Little Hans is no exception. He shows his registration card to the guard at th camp entrance as he returns with mother and sister from a walk. There is another big camp processing refugees from Eastern Germay, un the U.S. Zone of Germany." Unfortunately we do not have the details as to why she fled East Germany. The photograph is dated October 12, 1949.

The Cold War began in Germany with Soviet and the Western Allies disagreeing over Berlin and occupation policies. While the Soviets and Americans confronted each other, the key factor on how this would be resolved is how the German people would assess the two systems that were now occupying their countries. Here the Soviets and East German Communists assumed that the scientific superiority of Communism would enable them to emerge successful in any economic competition because Communism would create a worker's paradise. It had bot occurred in the Soviet Union, but Soviet propaganda had effectively covered that up. And while they were sure that a worker's paradise would emerge, the Communists were not prepared to have an open discussion on the matter. After all, why permit discussion when the truth had already been scientifically determined. The Soviets and East German Communists controlled the press and set up concentration camps for those who questioned Communism. This could be justified morally because as the Communists possessed the truth, those who opposed them were misguided or evil malefactors. It should not be thought that Communism was something introduced into Germany by the Soviets and that there were no Communists in Germany prepared to accept the new system. Germany before Hitler had Europe's largest Communist Party outside the Soviet Union and before World War I it was much larger that the Russians. In fact the fear of a Communist take over wa very real and a major reason for the rise of the NAZIs. And there were substantial elements in the NAZI Party that shared ideas with the Communists. They were especially pronounced in the SA. And the largest political party during most of the Weimar Republic was the Socialists--the SPD. They also shared many belief with the Communists. Thus Stalin had the opportunity to convert Germany to Communism. And after the War, economic conditions in Germany were dreadful, similar in both the Soviet and Western occupations zones. Why the Soviet failed is an interesting topic. It began in the closing days of World War II. Stalin turned the Red Army lose on German women. Millions of German women were raped. Germans were not allowed to lock their doors. Gangs of Red Army soldiers burst into German homes demanding 'Frauen'. Any resistance meant death. Thus at the outset the Germans had the concept of the Russians laid by NAZI propaganda confirmed. This only lasted a short period, but it was a traumatic vent. And German in the Western zones learned about it. But the Western Allies had battered German cities unmercifully by air, day and night for 2 1/2 years. That must have embittered many Germans as well. The Soviets also demanded reparations. This is something the Western Allies dud not do. Factories in their occupation zones were dismantled and shipped back to Germany. Thus Stalin undermined the economic viability of East Germany from the beginning. Th NKVD set up a police state denying basic civil rights and trained the Stasi to do to the same. We are not entirely sure just how important this was. Economic developments may have been more important. But even before major economic differences developed, the Berlin and German response to Soviet efforts to seize Berlin (1948), that economics was not the entire story. The East German Communists began nationalizing property. And certain groups of the population were sanctioned, such as aristocrats, landowners, and businessmen. This was a minority of the population, but they began moving to the Western zones at an early point. At first this was relatively easy. As far as we know, relatively few Germans moved from the Western zones to the Soviet Zone. Than the United States launched the Marshall Plan and supported the Currency Reforms that set the German Economic Miracle in motion (1948). From this point on, the Germans who were free to do so, cast their lot with the Western Allies, democracy, and free market capitalism. And to the shock of the Soviets and East German Communists, free market capitalism proved more efficient and productive than a Communist state planned economy. They had difficulty understanding what was occurring before their eyes on the other side of the Iron Curtain. The Soviets were able to keep this development from their own people. The East Germans found this difficult because their people could tune into west German radio and by the 1950s, television. And the first people to rise up were workers, the same people who has supported the Communists before the NAZIs and that the East German Communists assumed would be the rock bed of Communism.

Beginning

The Cold War began in Germany with Soviet and the Western Allies disagreeing over Berlin and occupation policies. With the NAZIs to be defeated, there was a strong bond holding the Soviets and Western Allies together. With the NAZI surrender (May 1945), that common bond was broken. As a result the epic competition for the minds of the German people began. Of course we all know the outcome today. At the time no one knew the outcome and it was an open question which way Germany would swing. This was especially the case given the number of Germans who had Communist and Socialist leanings. Many people around the world at the time believed that socialism was the wave of the future. And that unlike capitalism would create worker and peasant paradises. Stalin's NKVD stopped the reality from leaking out of the Soviet Union. Most of the new nations that achieved independence as part of the post-War decolonization process adopted socialism to one extent or another--and virtually all that did were economic failures. The idea of worker paradises may be hard to take seriously today, but it was a widely held point of view after World War II, buttressed with Soviet military successes. Socialist ideology has a seductive quality, especially as depicted by left-0wing university professors who are generally not challenged on campus. (University faculties like main-stream journalists by a huge majority have leftist leanings.) Just look at the number of young Americans who look favorably on socialism today because it sounds so good.

The German People

While the Soviets and Western Allies confronted each other, the key arbiter as to how the future of Germany would be resolved was the German people. Namely how would the Germans would assess the two systems that were now occupying their country. And here the assessment would not be theoretical, it would be their actual life experiences. Here the Soviets had not helped the cause by permitting the Red Army to conduct the mass rape of German women, including girls. But there was considerable support for socialism before the NAZIs seized power. There was a sizeable German Communist Party, one of the most important Communist parties in the world at the time. Marxist doctrine held that the Revolution would take place in highly industrial countries with the largest proletariat. It was, however, the Socialists who after World War I which dominated the Weimar Republic before the NAZIs seized power (1933). And the NAZI system was a type of socialism. It is no accident that Socialist and Worker appear in the name of the NAZI Party. And it was the Western Allies that had turned German cities into vast mounds of rubble. It should not be thought that Communism was something introduced into Germany by the Soviets and that there were no Communists in Germany prepared to accept the new system. Germany before Hitler had Europe's largest Communist Party outside the Soviet Union and before World War I it was much larger that the Russians. In fact the fear of a Communist take over was very real and a major reason for the rise of the NAZIs. A German reader writes, "After World War I, violent struggles and virtual political wars between Communists and NAZIs played out on German streets. People were beaten on the streets. There were political murders. The German people were appalled. The Treaty of Versailles was uniformly unpopular. The "N" in the NSDAP/NAZI name appealed to many people." Our German reader is absolutely correct about this. But often unsaid is the simple fact that the German people did not really object to harsh peace treaties. The treaties they opposed upon others were just as harsh, if not more harsh (Poland-18th century, Denmark-1864, France-1871, Romania-1917, and Russia-1918, not to mention France-1940). What the German people objected to was having a harsh treaty imposed upon Germany. Another important factor is that there were substantial elements in the NAZI Party which shared ideas with the Communist. The "S/Z" in the NSDAP?NAZI also was there for a reason. A German reader explains, "The largest political party during most of the Weimar Republic was the Socialists (SPD). They also shared many economic ideas with the Communists. The NAZIs used this word to attract worker support." Socialist sentiments were especially pronounced in the SA and many wanted more radical action, just like the Communists. Stalin hoped to use this orientation to convert Germany to Communism. And given the American-British Strategic Bombing Campaign, it was unclear if normal relations could be buit with the Germans.

Choice

After the War, economic conditions in Germany were dreadful, similar in both the Soviet and Western occupations zones. A German reader writes, "Actually conditions in the West were worst. German industry was mostly located in the Western zones. The Eastern Zone was more agricultural and thus better able to supply the population with food." Why the Soviets failed is an interesting topic. It began in the closing days of World War II. Stalin turned the Red Army lose on German women. Millions of German women were raped. Germans were not allowed to lock their doors. Gangs of Red Army soldiers burst into German homes demanding 'Frauen'. Any resistance meant death. Thus at the outset the Germans had the concept of the Russians laid out by NAZI propaganda confirmed. The Red Army mass rapes only lasted a short period, but it was a traumatic event. And German in the Western zones learned about it. But the Western Allies had battered German cuties by air day and night for 2 1/2 years. That must have embittered many Germans as well. Thus who the German people would turn to was an open question. Germans in the East had no real choce--except to flee west, leaving family and possessions behind. Those in the West had a choce, different political parties, a free press, the rule of law, and real competitive elections.

Soviet Zone Leaders: The Communists

Walter Ulbricht who was involved in attacks on the police before the NAZIs seized power and them actions like purging Germans fighting for the Spanish Republic that were not sufficiently pro-Soviet. He spent the War in the Soviet Union. A German reader writes, "Ulbricht and many other German Communists lived in a Moscow hotel. I don´t remember the name, but is was well-known for it." Notably NKVD chief Lavrenty Beria described Ulbricht as 'the greatest idiot that he had ever seen'. [Frank, p. 241.] Ulbricht was among the group of Communists that Stalin sent to Germany after the War to set up a Communist regime. According to one historian, Ulbricht espoused "the motto 'it must look democratic but we must control everything'". He played a key role in establishing the German Socialist Unity Party (SED) dictatorship. [Grieder, p. 14.] The Soviets and East German Communists assumed that the scientific superiority of Communism would enable them to emerge successful in any economic competition with the Western democracies and their capitalist economies. This is because they firmly believed that Socialism was the ultimate economic system and would out perform Capitalism, creating a worker's paradise. This had not occurred in the Soviet Union, but Soviet propaganda had effectively covered that up. And the Depression caused many in the West to question both liberal democracy and capitalism. (This was largely the case because the cause of the Depression was not well understood.) The Depression was still in the mind of many, And Germany as well as Japan had been the countries most adversely affected by the Depression. And German Communists were sure that a worker's paradise would emerge. The Communists were not prepared to have an open discussion on the matter. After all, why permit discussion when the truth had already been scientifically determined. The Soviets and East German Communists controlled the press and set up concentration camps for those who questioned Communism. A German reader writes, "Yes, in the DDR and elsewhere, but it is now forgotten. All we here about is the NAZI concentration camps. But the Soviet and East German caps were all too real. The left-leaning modern main-stream media only want to recall NAZI concentration camps. East German Communist concentration camps are largely erased from history. The victims who survived went to the West if possible. Before the Wall went up, this was still possible." Concentration camps and the suppression of civil liberties could all be justified morally because as the Communists possessed the truth, those who opposed them were misguided or evil malefactors. This is much like the approach of the Catholic Church in the medieval era and the creation of the Inquisition when people began to question the Church. And the German Communists that Stalin put in charge were carefully chosen and the survivors of a deadly vetting process conducted by the NKVD. Many European Communists fled to the Soviet Union as the NAZIs seized one country after another. Many would not survive NKVD vetting. Those who did survive learned their lesson well.

Soviet Policy and Propaganda

Stalin did not assist the German Communists other than forcing the German people to accept them. The Soviets demanded massive reparations from the Germans, both from the Western and Eastern occupation zones. A German reader writes, "Factories in the West were largely damaged if not obliterated by the Allied Strategic Bombing Campaign. In the East there was less industry and what existed was less damaged by the bombing. What was still operable was seized and shipped to the Soviet Union as reparations, but much of what was transported was not operable because of a combination of damage and missing know-how." Of course he could only force compliance in the the eastern Soviet zone. This is something the Western Allies did not do. The Soviets dismantled factories in their occupation zones and shipped the machinery back to the Soviet Union to replace factories destroyed by the Germans. Thus Stalin undermined the economic viability of East Germany from the very beginning. The NKVD, however, set up a police state denying basic civil rights and trained the Stasi to do to the same on their own. We are not entirely sure just how important this was. Economic developments may have been more important. But even before major economic differences developed, the Berlin and German resistance toward Soviet attempts to seize power (Berlin 1948) suggest that economics was not the entire story. There is no way of knowing what East Germans thought because free expression could get you arrested. We know what Germans in the rest were thinking. Again Stalin's efforts to seize Berlin did not help the Comminists. In the actual free electionm held in West Germany, the Communists polled only 5 percent of the vote (1949). And this was before the German Economic Miracle had begun to kick in amterially. Soviet propagannda was heabilly leveredged to attack Anericans with slogans like 'Amrrican Go Home'. In West Germany this actually was detrimehntal. Germans in the West were now looking at the Ameriuvans against Sioviet oppressioin. It is only later that caputalism and American would be associated with prosperity in contrat to Communist economuc failure in Eas Germany.

Western Policies

Western occupation policies was not settled at the time that the NAZIs surrendered (May 1945). America, Britain and France all had their own occupation zones. Not only was their no joint agreement as to occupation policies, but the United States had not yet decided on their own occupation policy.

American Zone

The American occupation plan that existed, the Morgenthau Plan, had not been fully accepted even within the American leadership. The British never signed on with it. And the French were intent on reparations. While President Roosevelt had approved the Morgenthau Plan, he had not set up any mechanism for implementing it. And Secretary Simpson and the American military commanders opposed it. More importantly, so did President Truman who not only rejected the Plan, but moved to get rid of Secretary Morgenthau as well. German reader writes, "Thanks have to be expressed to President Truman because he didn´t introduce the Morgenthau Plan!." It soon became clear to the Americans and British that unless they got the German economy going not only would they face all kinds of political problems, but there would be an enormous and permanent cost of supporting the German people. The Americans and British brought along the French. General Lucias Clay played a huge part in this evolution. Clay helped convince Secretary of State James F. Byrnes, Truman's key adviser, that the Morgebnthau Plan was a huge mistake. Byrnes gave a speech in Stuttgart, Germany -- 'Restatement of Policy on Germany' (1946). It marked the formal transition in American occupation policy away from the Morgenthau Plan of economic dismantlement to one of economic reconstruction. Clay was a major figure in Germany after the War and was appointed American military governor (1947). He would both administer the Marshall Plan as well as the Berlin Air Lift which created a permanent bond between the American and German people.

British Zone


French Zone

French officials after enduring 4 years of German occupation and plundering were not in a mood to be charitable to the Germans. A German reader writes, "The French had similar ideas to the Morgenthau Plan -- transforming Germany into an unimportant agricultural nation. And even ideas about annexing German territory. After the NAZI surrender the reformed French Army had to withdraw from parts of southwestern Germany which were not assigned to them the Allies. (The French Zone was carved out of the American and Britush Zones. This included Stuttgart and surroundings. This was somewhat reminiscent of the Treaty of Versailles after World War I. France controlled an area in the Ruhr (Ruhrgebiet) and the Saarland."

Population Movement

Even before the War was over, the Wehrmacht began moving as many men west as possible to avoid Soviet internment. But this was primarily the military, not the civilian population. This only occured in large numbers after the Soviets put the Communists in power.

To West Germany

The East German Communists began nationalizing property. And certain groups of the population were sanctioned, such as aristocrats, landowners, and businessmen. This was a minority of the population, but they began moving to the Western zones at a very early point. At first economic conditions in the two zones were similar, but eventually economic conditions in the East began to deteriorate because of Communist policies and living standards became more important. A German reader writes, "Factories in the East were not so damaged during the war, but productivity declined once in Communist hands. Farmers lost their land and had to work in a kolchose, a kolkhoz or collective farm. And just as in the Soviet Union, agricultural yields declined." At first moving was relatively easy. Than the United States launched the Marshall Plan and supported the Currency Reforms that set the German Economic Miracle in motion (1948). From this point on, the Germans who were free to do so, cast their lot with the Western Allies, democracy, and free market capitalism. And while Germans in the East could not vote in real elections. They could vote with their feet. And to the shock of the Soviets and East German Communists, free market capitalism proved more efficient and productive than a Communist state planned economy. They had difficulty understanding what was occurring before their eyes on the other side of the Iron Curtain. The Communists in the American vernacular were saying=, are you going to believe your lying eyes or our beautiful socialist ideology. Soon all classes of people were leaving the Eastern Zone, including working-class Germans, the very people the Communists believed would be the core support for the regime. The Soviets were able to keep this development from their own people. The East Germans found this difficult because their people could tune into west German radio and by the 1950s, television. Here the visual allure of West German advertising seems to have had been especially influential. East Germans saw all the consumer goods they wanted available in the West. A German reader writes, "Yes, they did. As we in southwest Germany were secretly listening to Swiss radio Beromünster during World War II. Saxony (far east of the DDR) was the 'Island of the Blessed for the Communist officials. They were not able to hear Radio im Amerikanischen Sektor of Berlin (RIAS). As a result, they were the most influenced by Communist propaganda." Interestingly, the first people to rise up against the Communists were workers, the same people who has supported the Communists before the NAZIs . The East German Communists were shocked. They assumed that workers would be the rock bed of Communism. this was something thst had not occurred during the NAZI era, there was no mass exodus from Germany during NAZI rule. A German reader writes, "Yes, Germans in the East before the Wall went up left for the the East. It was most pronounced with well educated people. Two of my colleagues in our university department with eight full professors originally came from the East."

To East Germany

As far as we know, relatively few Germans moved from the Western zones to the Soviet Zone. There were, however, some high profile individuals, dedicated Communists or individuals who became convinced that Socialism was the future. One example was atomic spy Klaus Fuchs who became a Communist before the War. Another example wad Wehrmacht Sixth Army commander Frederich Paulis who after surrendering at Stalingrad, converted to Communism in Soviet captivity. A German reader writes, "A particularly notable is German Chancellor Angela Merkel. She was born in Hamburg, West Germany. Her father, a Protestant cleric, moved from Hamburg to the Soviet Zone. She this grew up in the DDR."

Western Zone Leaders

Konrad Adenauer had been the popular mayor of Cologne before the NAZIs seized power. He was in and out of NAZI concentration camps during NAZI rule. After the War he founded the Christian Democratic Party which would play a critical role in post-War German history. The Western Allies from a early point not only permitted, but promoted a free press in which German politicians could discuss political issues. Adenauer stood up to the British which increased his popularity with the Germans. His core belief was that the most important battle in the post-War world was between the forces of Christianity and Marxism, especially Communism. [Mitchell, p. 132.] This appealed to the Americans. He was a Catholic, but did not want to resurrect the important, but sectarian pre-NAZI Catholic Center Party. He wanted the CDU to attract both Catholics and Protestants. A German reader writes, "Adenauer also worked to end the differences between Germany and France and was very successful. His counterpart Kurt Schuhmacher, leader of the SPD in the early times were strongly opposed to Communism. Schumacher successfully opposed the effort of the Communists to form a single Left party." The Western Allies from an early point began turning over authority to West German officials and moved to establish a nucleus for a future German government. Adenauer would play a key role in this process. A initial major step taken by the Allies was be to create a central Economic Council for the three western zones. The program would provide for 1) a West German constituent assembly, 2) an occupation statute governing relations between the Allies and the German authorities, and 3) the political and economic merger of the French with the British and American zones. The Grundgesetz (Basic Law), the constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany, was promulgated (May 1949). The first federal elections were held (August 1949). These were real democratic elections--unlike the electoral charades in the East. A government was formed (September 1949). Adenauer's government was a coalition of the major German political parties (CDU, CSU and the Free Democrats). The next day, the occupation statute came into force, granting powers to the new government -- self-government with certain exceptions. Another key figure was economist Ludwig Erhard who helped formulate the 1948 Currency Reform and help. As Minister of the Economy (1949-63) he directed German participation in the Marshall Plan and managed the the German Economic Miracle. A German reader writes, "A relatively important former politician in the SPD was Herbert Wehner. He lived in the same Moscow hotel as Ulbricht during World War. Many in the West thought he was a Soviet spy!"

Stalin and Unity

Revisionist historians try to say that it was the West that caused the Cold War and division of Germany. And their major evidence for this was that Stalin did not want Germany divided. This is in part true, but only because Stalin saw the possibility of controlling the whole country. At the time there were large Communist parties in both Italy and France, presenting the possibility of seizing control of thoise countries as well. And before the NAZIs, Germany had a very strong Communist Party. At first Stalin thought that the Americans would withdraw from Europe as they had done after World War I. Actually President Roosevelt had told Stalin that this would happen. And without the Americans, there would have been mo real security in West Germany, or Western Europe in general. In addition, The Communists would do very well in any German-wide elections. They could control the vote in East Germany while the vote in East would be divided because the elections there would be democratic. Thus the Communists would have a political base that they could use dominate German politics. And he thought that the 'efficiencies' of Communism would convince even those who opposed Communist ideology. Adenauer saw the dangers of the Communist threat. Many Germans at the time believed that socialism was more efficient than capitalism. This was before the German Economic Miracle demonstrated the efficiencies and potential of capitalism to improve peoples' lives. Adenauer argued for unity, but only after joining the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). This of course Stalin was not going to allow. And the division of Germany became a permanent feature of the post-War era.

Capitalism

The German Economic Miracle occurred in the Western Zone. East German factories were more efficient than Soviet factories, but not more efficient than West German or American factories. It is important to understand why. A German reader writes, "In the West Zone, factories had been obliterated by the Allied Strategic Bombing Campaign. So during the 1950s and 60s brand new modern factories were built in West Germany/the Federal Republic. Compared the situation in Britain where most factories survived the War. As a result the British still had old factories with pre-War machinery." Now modern new factories were a factor in the German Economic Miracle, but we believe that this clouds what the vital component at the heart of the West German success was. It was not just new factories. After all, West Germany was not the only country damaged by war. There were countless new factories in East Germany and the Soviet Union. And old or new, these factories were inefficient--largely because they operated within a socialist command econonmic system. The German factories operated within a capitalist system and were highly efficient. The new factories increased that efficiency, but without capitalism they would have been just as inefficient fas actories in the Soviet Union and East Germany. Now about the British. Is is true that the British did not experience a post-War economic miracle, but the aging industrial plant is only part of the story. First of all, there was substantial damage, most as a result of the Luftwaffe Blitz (1940-41). It was nothing like the level of Allied bombing, but it was substantial. But more importantly, the British elected a Labour (socialist) Government (July 1945). It was the policies of this Government more than an aging industrial plant that presented a post-War economic miracle in Britain. The way capitalism works is that part of the profits from operations are reinvested in the business to purchase new equipment and build modern plants. This did not occur in Britain because of British tax and industrial policy. In addition, the Government nationalized industries and the government's primary interest was to preserve jobs rather than efficient operations.

The SPD Today

The historical evolution of the SPD is fascinating. Like the Communists, Socialists believed that Marxist policies would create worker paradises. The SPD differed with the Communists over totalitarian suppression of civil liberties, but they agreed on socialist economics. The SPD dominated German politics during the Weimar era. After World War II, the Communists had an opportunity to implement their policies in East Germany and they failed. In the West the SPD also became an important political party, but it was Capitalism not Socialism that ignited the German Economic Miracle. And one unexpected result was the demise of the SPD as a major German political party. Part of the reason for this was the demonstration of the wealth (prosperity) generating power of capitalism. But another factor was the transformation of the German work force. A German reader explains. "Actually the SPD has very few voters anymore. The population that was once 'workers'" are now highly educated technicians, engineers, and higher professions. The SPD now polls only 20 percent. The former Communists (SED from the East) now called Die Linken (the Left) only 9 percent. This is based on the 2017 Federal Bundestag Elections."

Sources

Frank, Mario. Walter Ulbricht: Eine Deutsche Biographie (Berlin: 2001)..

Grieder, Peter. The East German Leadership, 1946-73: Conflict and Crisis (Manchester University Press: 2000).

Mitchell, Maria. The Origins of Christian Democracy: Politics and Confession in Modern Germany (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press: 2012). .







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Created: 4:59 AM 12/17/2013
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Last updated: 4:41 PM 2/25/2021