Cold War Military Trends: North Atlantic Treaty Organization --NATO (1949)

Figure 1.--The unlikely combination of Truman, Stalin, and Eisenhower helped to bring about and popularize NATO. Truman's deft choice of Gen. Eisenhower made NATO paletable to a still skeptical American public and Congress. Ike as a result of his World War II service was the most popular figure in America. Here Ike as NATO Commander is involved in training activties. The press caption read, "German Boys Surprised at Joining Ike in a Picture: These little boys who live in Dornhelm, Germany, rushed into a street when they saw a line of military vehicles passing through their town. They had two surprises in store. When the vehicles made a brief stop, the boys found themselves face to face with Genral Dwight D. Eisenhower (right forground), who was directing a broad grin their way. The boys were diverted from the general when a photographer from the 'Stars and Stripes', service newspaper, moved into position and snapped this picture. General Eisenhower was making a 2-day inspection of Allied troops in training maneuvers. The man behind him was Lieut Col, Vernon Walters, an interpretor." The photograph seems to be dated June 4, 1951, although the printing is indestinct.

Britain, France, and the Low Countries created a Western military alliance. These countries, however, by themselves could not have resisted a determined offensive by the Soviet Union. Even combined they did notvhave the capability to confont the massive Red Army. Only Britain because of the Channel had the capability of resisting the Channel. We cannot at this time assess the economic debate. The Marshal Plan was important, but it was only seed money, It was the Europeans who played the key role in generating the ecomnomic miracle that swept Western Europe in sharp contrast to the moribund economies of Soviet dominated Eastern Europe. While the role of the United States in financing recovery can be debated, it is clear that only the military shield of the Unites States prevented the establishment of Eastern European People's Republics in Western Europe. America did not withdraw from Europe after World War II as it had done after World War I and many asumed would occur after the NAZI surrender. American participation in a miltary pact to defend Western Europe was not a foregone conclussion in 1945. It was Soviet actions after the War that created political support in America for a continuing military presence in Western Europe. It was genrally thought that America's rejection of Wilson's League of Nations and isolationist policies after World War I had made possible Hitler's rise to power. Many Americans became convinced that the mistake should not be repeated after World War II. It was Stalin more than any other individuals that helped bring about that commitment. Stalin after seizing control of the Baltics, Poland, omania, nd Bulgaria, moved to seized total control of Czechoslovakia (1948), ending all pretence of democracy. It was not lost on many that Czechoslovakia was Hiler's first victim. But it was the Soviet blockade of West Berlin that made it clear that a strong Western military capability was necessary to counter Soviet power. The United States helped organize the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)--a mutual assistance military treaty. Even befoire the Soviet blockade was lifited, the United States and 11 other countries on April 4, 1949 signed the treaty. [Hudson, p. 62.] Thanks to Stalin, there was little debate in the Senate which approved ratification in an overwealming 82 to 13 vote. Stalin's foreign policy had brought about just what he did not want, a powerful, determined military capability on the the western edge of the Soviet Empire. Despite the the treaty vote, many Americans were uneasy about President Eisenhoer's commitment to Europe. His choice of General Eisenhower as NATO Supreme Commander was adeft political move. Eisenhower as a result of his orld war II role was tremendously popular in both America and Europe. And interestngly, despite leading Allied armies into Germany, he was even popular in Germany. While not critical when NATO was established, in the long run, NATO and the defense of Western Europe would depend on German prticipation.

U.S. Army in Europe -- ETOUSA (1945)

The war in Europe officially ended with the German surrender (May 8, 1945). The U.S. Army European Theater of Oppration (ETOUSA) headquarters was located in Versailles, France, a few miles outside of Paris. Gen. Eisenhower and his staff began preparing for the occupation of Germany and to move ETOUSA headquarters to Frankfurt, Germany. There they would be co-located with the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Forces (SHAEF) and the Office of Military Government, United States (OMGUS). ETOUSA was redesignated Headquarters, United States Forces European Theater--HQ USFET (July 1, 1945), with its headquarters at Frankfurt. The U.S. Army at the end of the war had some 2.4 million men in Europe. They were organized into two Army groups (6th and 12th), five field armies (First, Third, Seventh, Sixth and Ninth), 13 corps headquarters, and 62 combat divisions (43 infantry, 16 armor, and 3 airborne). They had 11,000 tanks and armored fighting vehicles. This force was rapidly drawn down. At first much of it was to be redeployed to the Pacific for the planned invasion of Japan. The unexpected Japanese surrender chnged all that (August 14). It was back to America permanently and demobilzation for civilian life. Thus within a year, the Americn occupation force was reduced to less than 290,000 men. Most of the larger formations had eithr departed or been inactivated. Two formations remained. The Seventh Army headquarters controlled the western portion of the American zone. The Third Army controlled the eastern portion. Two field army commanders organized district 'constabularies' based on cavalry groups (November 1945). A U.S. Constabulary headquarters encompasing the entire American occupation zone was activated at Bamberg (May 1, 1946). This became the basis for the structure of the American occupation forces in ocupied Germany. The American occupation force consisted of the 1st Infantry Division, a separate infantry regiment, and the U.S. Constabulary of 10 cavalry regiments. Seventh Army was inactivated (March 1946). America and Britain combined their zones (January 1, 1947) The French somewhat reluctantly joined in (June 1, 1948) The combined Western ocpation zone became the Federal Republic of Germany/West Germany (May 23, 1949). The SEventh Army was reactivated for a short time at Atlanta, Georgia, and assigned to the Regular Army with headquarters at Vaihingen, Germany (November 1950).

Western Europe

Britain, France, and the Low Countries created a Western military alliance. These countries, however, by themselves could not have resisted a determined offensive by the Soviet Union. Even combined they did not have the capability to confont the massive Red Army. Only Britain because of the Channel had the capability of resisting a Soviet invasion of Western Europe. Stalin having seized control of Eastern Europe believed that Western Europe would eventually fall as well. There were important Communist parties in Western Europe, actually stronger than the Communist parties in Eastern Europe before tha arrival of the NKVD and Red Army. America had left Euriope after World War I and he assumed would do so again. President Roosevelt apparently told Stalin at Yalta that this was his intention (February 1945). Of course Presudebt Roosevelt suffered a massive cereberal hemerage (April 1945). And the new president had different expectations for Soviet behavior and made his fellings felt from an early point. This would begin a pattern that would bedevel Soviet diplomats for the duration of the Cold War. They would no more than get adjusted to one president, then American voters would send a new preodent to Washington. And President Truman, the first American president after Roosevelt that Stalin had to deal with made the critical decision to maintain American combat forces in Europe.

Economic Situation

We cannot at this time assess the economic debate. The Marshal Plan was important, but it was only seed money, It was the Europeans who played the key role in generating the ecomnomic miracle that swept Western Europe in sharp contrast to the moribund economies of Soviet dominated Eastern Europe. Econmists debate the impact of the Marshall Plan. There is no doubt that it was important. Just how important is difficult to assess. Stalin ordered the Eastern Europeans not to participate. The Czechs in particular wanted to participate. Rather Stalin offered them the Molotov Plan. It is difficult to comare the two programs. The differing economic trajectory of Eastern and Western Eurooe has more to do with the inherent economic nature of capitalism and socialism than the two Cold War economic plans. The result was the German Economic Miracle.

American Role

America's role in developmnt of an independent, prosperous (capitalist) and democratic Western Europe was essential. The role of the United States in financing recovery can be debated. The Marshall Plan was important, but just how important can be debated. It is clear that only the military security shield of the United States prevented Stalin from establishing repressive Eastern European People's Republics in Western Europe. America was planning to withdraw from Europe after World War II as it had done after World War I. Many assumed this would occur after the NAZI surrender as was the plan. Even President Roosevelt was planning for this as the War began to wind down in Europe. He told Stalin at Yalta that this was thevplan. American participation in a military pact to defend Western Europe was not anticipated and certainly not a foregone conclussion in 1945, it ws not even likely. It was Soviet actions after the War that created political support in America for a continuing military presence in Western Europe. It was Stalin's grab for power nd insisting on installing Communist polic states throughout Eastern Europe tht changed American minds. It was generally thought that America's rejection of Wilson's League of Nations and isolationist policies after World War I had made possible Hitler's rise to power. Many Americans became convinced that that America should not repeatthat mistake after World War II and allow another brutal tyrant to dominate Europe.

Stalin's Role

It was Stalin more than any other individuals that helped bring about that commitment. Stalin after seizing control of the Baltics and annexing them, also ignored the cimmitmnts made at Yalta regarding Poland. After a brief transition period of coaliion governmnt, brutal Communist police states were established in Bulgaria, Hungary, and Romania. There were efforts to resist. Prime-Minister Ferenc Nagy resistd Sovit efforts to control his county until the Communists kidnpped his 5-year old son (May 1947). Resistance was futile with the Red Army as a occupation force and the Comminits cntolling the Interior Mibistries (police). Pressure was applied both throyugh legl n extra-juridical actions. Finlly Stalin moved to seize total control of democratic Czechoslovakia after they expressed a desire to accept American Marshall Plan aid. A Comminist coup ended all pretence of democracy (February 1948). The brutal nature of the coup shocked the West. Rigged elections were held to crete a thin veneer of legality to the communist seizure of power (May 1948). Fireign Minister Jan Masaryk was found dead on the pavemeht under his office windows. It was not lost on many that Czechoslovakia was Hiler's first victim. But it was the Soviet blockade of West Berlin (June 1948) that made it clear that a strong Western military capability was necessary to counter Soviet power.

Formation (1949)

The United States helped organize the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)--a mutual assistance military treaty. Even befoire the Soviet blockade of Berlin was lifited, the United States and 11 other countries signed the treaty (April 4, 1949). [Hudson, p. 62.] Thanks to Stalin, there was little debate in the Senate which approved ratification in an overwealming 82 to 13 vote. Stalin's foreign policy had brought about just what he did not want, a powerful, determined military capability on the the western edge of the Soviet Empire. Despite the the Treaty vote, many Americans were uneasy about President Truman's commitment to Europe. His choice of General Eisenhower as NATO Supreme Commander was adeft political move. Eisenhower as a result of his World War II role, espcially D-Day, was tremendously popular in both America and Europe. And interestngly, despite leading Allied armies into Germany, he was even popular in Germany. While not critical when NATO was established, in the long run, NATO and the defense of Western Europe would depend on German prticipation.

American Commitment

The United States never attempted to match Soviet forces in Europe. Even during the War, American mnpower in Europe was only a fraction of the size of the massive Soviet Red Army. With the drawdown of the American forces after the War, the United States even with British and French assistance could not have begun to have stopped. Even when West Germany joined NATO (May 9, 1955), the Western forces were no match for Soviet/Warsaw Pact forces. This meant the remilitarization of Germany. It was not what the United States planned at the end of World War II, but was a reaction to the Soviet threat. Never said publically, the American force was not designed to stop an all out Soviet offensive. It was substantial enough to mean that a Soviet attack on Western Europe would mean war with the nuclear-armed United States. And the American NATO force, including dependants, was large nough that the United States could not adandon it in case of war. It was the American nuclear umbrella that backed NATO and guaranted the security of western Europe. The question arises, would the United States ever have launched a nuclear war, once the Soviets had nuclear wepons, had they attacked. The Europeans, especially the French, were not at all sure about that. In the 1970s as the ban the bomb moverment gained momentum, many Europeans were as afraid of an American nuclear response as of a Soviet invasion. They of course has not experiencded life in a Communist police state. Fortunately, the Soviets took the threat seriously enough so that the commitment was never tested.

Warsaw Pact (1955)

The Soviet answer to NATO was the Warsaw Pact. The Soviet Union and seven of the puppet European satellites sign in the Soviet Empire signed a treaty establishing the Warsaw Pact. It was a mutual defense organization that placed the Soviets in command of the armed forces of the member states. It was established 6 years after NATO. The delay was primarily because it took some time before the Soviets were satisfied that the militaries they built up in their satellites were reliably under Communist control. They were shocked when this did not prove to be the case in Hungary (1956). The Warsaw Pact recived its mame because the treaty was signed in Warsaw. Thevmember were the Soviet Union, Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Romania. Yugoslavia because of the solit with the Soviet Union did not participate. The treaty commited member states to come to the defense of any member attacked by an outside force. It established a unified military command. Famed World War II Red Army Marshal Ivan S. Konev was the first commander. While obstensibly similar to NATO, there was one big difference. Participation was not voluntary, membership was mandatory. And the pact would be used to prevent mebers from seeking independence (Hungary 1956 and Czechoslovakia 1973). It was NATO admitting West Germany (May 1955) that prompted Soviet action. This meant the remilitarization of Germany, at least West Germany. The Soviets and their allies, complained, “Western Germany, which is being remilitarized, and her inclusion in the North Atlantic bloc, which increases the danger of a new war and creates a threat to the national security of peace-loving states.” The Soviets from the begiining of th Cold War focused their policy on Germany. Stalin had hoped that there would be a unified Communist Germany undr his control. A remilitarized Germany was just what the Soviets did not want.

French Withdrawl from NATO Command Structure (1966)

France was one of the founding members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) which became the backbone of the Westrn response to Soviet aggression. The Soviet Union on Stalin's orders had seized control of countrie throughout Eastern and Central Europe, including democratic Czecoslovakia (1948). NATO meant that unlike after World War I, America would not withdraw from Europe. And only American power could stop Stalin and the Red Army. NATO structured the defense of Western Europe primarily around the West German and French armis and military instalations in those two countrie. This was backed up with the merican nuclear umbrella. France ws particularly important because West Hemany had a long bofrder with the Soviet dominated Warsaw Pact. And as a result, West Germany and the military instalations there would feel the full brunt of a Soviet invasion. France as a real area would provide the back up for a miliary response. A crisis in Algeria led to Charles De Gaulle's return to power (May 1958). He was clearly disturbed, despit NATO's success, with the internaldynamic with in NATO. In particular he resented the important role the United States played in NATO and the often-noted special American relationship with Britain. We suspect that his World War II experiences, especially the treatment by President Roosevelt played a role in his thinking. Desatisfaction with NATO was not entirely DeGualle's doing, but he was more determined to take action than other French leaders. Within month of returning to power, De Gualle fired off a memorandum to President Eisenhower and Prime Minister Macmillan (September 1958). In it he argued for a tripartite directorate to direct NATO that would put France on an equal footing with the United States and Britain. Disatisfied with the responses he received, President DeGualle began to construct an independent French defence force. DeGuall was focused on a possibe Soviet invasion and wanted option of reaching a possible separate peace rather than being drawn into a masive NATO-Warsaw Pact war. This of course cut at the heart of the whole idea of NATO. DeGualle never withdrew France from NATO, but began separting the French military command structure. This was a done in a number of derscrete steps. His first step was to withdrew its Mediterranean Fleet from NATO command (February 1959). The majpr steps occurred during the Kennedy and Johnson Administrations. President Kennedy's Secretary of State, Dean Rusk, was in France attending a NATO meeting. Preident DeGaulle told him that he wanted all U.S. military out of France as soon as possible. Rusk famously responded "Does that include those who are buried here?"

Sources

Hudson, G.F. The Hard and Bitter Peace: World Politics Since 1945 (Praeger: New York, 1967), 319p.

Created: 6:29 AM 3/5/2014
Last updated: 8:52 PM 2/23/2018