Figure 1.--Geography largely determined the resources available to communities around the world and the climate. Thus geography was a powerful force shaping culture, including clothing. This Malay boy was photographed in the 1920s. The Malay Peninsula was ideal for producing rubber. The Japanese seizure of Malya Peninsula in World War II threatened to unhinge the enire Allied war effort. Rubber was not natuve to Malaya, but growing conditions there were ideal.

"To know a nation's geography is to know its foreign policy."

-- Napoleon Bonaparte

Since grade school I have been fascinated by geography. Geography is not an easy disipline to define in part because of all the different braches of geography and the activities with which geograophers are involved. The basic definition is something along the line of the study of the aerial differentiation of the earth's surface. People from ancient times have written about geography. Only since World War II, however, were plate tectonics understood which are the primary mechanism of geological change that are reponsible for geographic features. What originally attracted me to geography was the vast physical and human differences around the world. Only gradually did I become aware of how important geography was in so many aspects of human endevor. This has included both history and clothing, the two major aspects of our HBC website. Geography has affected much more, including climate, cultural, and economics. It has also affected human physiological development which left Native Americans dangeously vulnerable to Old World diseases. Many HBC pages touch on geography and we want to create a page to help HBC readers interested in geography find the pages we have developed. HBC is fortunate to have a geographer among its contributors. He tells us, "I have a Ph.D in what I like to think of as "Historical Geography." I was interested in trying to recreate landscapes (physical and cultural) from the past, and examine factors that impacted and shaped these landscapes. Geographers do other things, of course, such as develop Geographical Information Systems (GISs), hazards research, etc. I am happy to report that university geography departments have grown in size since I was in school. Unfortunately, there has been a trend to merge geography with other disciplines into "social studies". Geographical Awareness quizzes have shown a need to go back to basics, because students have little knowledge of place names these days. School budgets and cutbacks in staff have been a problem."

Geopolitics

Geopolitics became important long before the term appeared. It is no accodent that river valley became the craddles of civilization and the most valuable land for long periods. Carhage and Rome were both placed at imprtant locations to dominate the Mediterranean. And the European outburst came fromn Western Europe, the countries facing the Atlantic Ocean. And from that point the European naval powers sought to control vital locations such as Panama, Suez, the Staits of Malaca, abnd the Cape of Good Hope. England used its position at Gibraltar and Malta to control the Mediterranean. For America, control of New Orleans at the mouth of the Mississippi was vital. The Germans after unification (1871) were mesmerized by geopolitical theorists who developed the theory that industralized Germany needed the resources of the East. Both the Tsars and Stalin were intent on dominated the Ukraine with its agriculture vital resources. This set in motion both Stalin's Ukranian Famine and bloody Wotld War II struggle on the Eastern Fronr between NAZI Germany and the Soviet Union. Surely the most important impact of geography was the formation of the modern suerpowers. While Europe fractured into nation states were locked in intermable wars over tiny provinces like Silesia. Russia and America were alble to conquer vast territory with little or no oppositio, Russia to the east and America to the west. This was just the opposite of what occurred ib China which was untited during ancient times. Here other factors than geopgraphy seem responsible. In modern times the English Channel meant that Britain could act tp prevent any one European power (Spain, France, and Germany) from becoming dominant, but this was not the case in ancient times.

Historical Development

The origins of geography date back to ancient times. There was a relationship between geography and astronomy in that the major debate in ancient times was whether the earh was flat or round (global). We know much more about the astronomical thinking of ancient civilization than geography, but there was probably often a relationship. The Chaldean (a Babalonian people) are commonly named as the first astronomers. Eygpt acquired much leaning from Babylonia, but their learning became emnired in superstion and myth. It is in Greece that geography emerged as an important discipline and the first named geographers. The Greeks debated geographical issues with some fervor. The first geograpoher we note is Thales (6th century BC), obe of the seven sages. He saw the earth in a astronomical context and argued that contrary to the accepted belief that the earth was a plain, ot was like other heavenly bodies was a globe and at the center of the universe. Other geographers following Thales continued to insist thsat the earth was flat. Greeks like Anaximander, Anaximenes, Pythagoirus continued the astronomical debate. Their work, however, did not strongy influence popular thought which was more determined by the obvious appearances. Thus the central issue of geograophy (the shape if the earth) was not really answered until the end of the medievsal era by practcal navigators like Coumbus and thinkers like Copernicus abd Gaileo. Long before this the Greeks continued to work on geography, Herodotus often called the father of history, mixed in a great deal og\f geograohy with his historical work (5th century BC). He was followed by Aristotle (4th century BC). He would dominate Westerm thought for an incredible two milennia. Aristole in De Coelo proivides us a summany of sancient gepographic ans astromomical understanding. Aristole through reasing rather than physical evidence cponcluded that the western coast of Spain was near India. Alexander's campaigns added immensly to the Western world's understsanding of physical geography. The astnomomer Hipparchus in Bithynia (3rd century BC) began calculating the longitude and lattitude of gepgraphicv places from celestial observations. Geograophers at the time did mot seiuze on his work, but it was critical to mapping. Geography is not just related to astronomy, but also to geometry which is necessary for calculating the cirumferemce, diameter, and volume of the earth, Thus Eratoshenes. a desciple of Euclid, was probablt the first author who attempted to develop geography into an organized discipline (3rd century) although his knowledge of northern and western Europ was sketcy at best. The Romans did not advance the tools and discipline of geography, the did acquire ememnse geograohic knowledge as they expanded their empire. Plutarch mentions the errection oif milliaria along the Roman roads which provided fefinitive measures of distance (2nd century BC). Ceasar commissioned a survey of the Roman Empire (44 BC) which developed as a mahor and lenthy effort. Part of the result was a huge painting in the portico of Agrippa. The results also appeared in Pliny's Nsatural History. The Greek geographer Strabo proviuded important descriptions. Other impoertant Roman geograpohers were Antonius Pius and Claudius Ptolemy. Ptoleny of Alexandria constructed a system of gography which dominated the Western mind until Vasco de Gams and Golumbus provided the information needed to cotruct a realistic understanding of geography (15th century). Their voyages were the result of the inquisness that had characterized the West combined with the technology to conduct extended voyages. In is interesting how many other civilizatins lacked the inquistivness of the West, even civilizations like China which had the technology to conduct extended voyages.

Cartography

Cartography began as more of an art than a science. Some anthropologists note etchings on cave walls, but the date of the first map is unknown. Civilization was well developed by the time man began making maps of any sophistication, but it did begin in ancient times. The rudimentary sketches of ancient times gradually developed into the amazingly accurate digital maps of our modern age. It is likely that the first maps rose from trade, but there is no way of confirming that. Maps came to serve multiple purpose, including exploration, trade, boundaries, and even geopolitics. The earliest efforts at map making appear to be cave etchings or even paintings during the neolithic era locating hunting grounds or water sources. It is with agriculture and the rise of civilization that map making began to take a recognizable form. The earliest ancient maps appear in Mesopotamia where civilization first arose. With the rise of agriculture, maps were used for land surveying and a range of administrative purposes. A map has been dated (5th millennium BC). It is like other documents a clay tablet. It depicts a stretch of the Euphrates River being farmed. They o course lacked geographical accuracy. The ancient Egyptians made significant advances in map making. They also created maps for practical purposes. Especially notable is the Turin Papyrus Map depicting a gold mining region--of special interest to the Egyptians. The Egyptians gave even more attention to the after world as religious function found in tomb paintings. The Greeks and Romans made substantial advances in map making, moving it into more a more realistic plane. Anaximander, a Greek philosopher, is believed to have produced the first world maps. Of course this involved a large degree of speculation once out of the Mediterranean region. Another Greek philosopher, Eratosthenes, actually calculating the Earth's circumference with an amazing level of accuracy. This of course was a necessary step in map making. The Romans were renowned for their famed road bildconstruction. And they created maps of those roads. The Tabula Peutingeriana depicted that net work. The Chinese also created maps. The earliest Chinese map is the State of Qin produced on silk (3rd century BC) This shows technical skill and an early understanding of basic cartographic principles. While impressive for their time, these maps can be widely inaccurate by modern standards. They had practical uses, but are a wonderful depiction of the worldview as well as the scientific understanding of the time. The medieval era involved a leap forward in cartography. The understanding of geography improved, but we still see artistic and religious symbolism. Medieval European maps served to aid navigation, but often religious and cultural beliefs wee even more important. The Mappa Mundi appearing during the medieval era , are major examples of cartographic advances. One of the best known is the Hereford Mappa Mundi (about 1300 AD). While the Greeks understood tat earth was a sphere, the medieval mind primarily conceived of a flat earth, often placing Jerusalem at the center. The maps were unusually orientated with the east not north at the top. This was a religious view involving the Garden Eden and the rising sun. The maps are filled with allegorical and symbolic elements. Biblical events, mythical creatures, and known landmarks were mixed together. And at the border of the maps were cautionary phrases like 'Here be dragons'. There still were a high degree of art and speculation. A Europe emerged from the mdieval era, the age of discovery began as did accuracy as well as nautical cartography. Not well understood, it was China that began the maritime outreach. The treasure vouage of the eunch Adm. Zheng reached Inda, the Middle East and Africa (1405-1433). It must have led to advanced mapping, only none have survived. And the Empperor decided to discontinue such efforts, leacing the field open to the Europeans. It was the Portuguese who launced the European maitime out reaxcch. Tragically al the records of the Portuguese school of navifation are lost o history, but some early maps have survived. A great deal was at stake. Trade with the East was constructed by Ottomn andArab control of tge overland trade routes. The Ottomas seized Costantinpole (1453). THis energized the Portuguese to sail south along the coast of Africa. Bartolomeu Dias reached the Cape of Good Hope (1488). A few years later Colnbus reached the Americas (1492) this sent the map makers in high gear. Now as trade was involved, there wasan increased need for accuracy which led to astunning remarkable progress in map-making. Niotv only do we see mre accurate drawings of coastlines and port locations, but vnow ocean currents and tides. This was citical for navigators plying the developing trade routes. We begin to see maps that look like the modern maps and an understanding of the world. The Cantino Planisphere depict the New World. The Waldseemüller map was the first to use the term 'America' as a name for the New World.

Impact

Geography has affected humans and life itself fundamentally and in many different ways. This has been directly and in indicrectly through affects geography has on climate and other phenomenon. Early geogaphers focused in reporting on physical features and cultural difference. Gradually measurement became important and methods to fix locations which led to accurate mapping (cartology). Only relatively recently did geographers began to understasnd and describe the many ways which geography has impacted humans and civilization and continues to do so. One author writes, "So just as there is a Carolingian Europe and a Mediterranean Europe, there is, to, often as a result to these invasionsfrom the east, a Byzantine-Ottoman Europe, a Prussian Europe, and a Hapsburg Europe, all of which are geographically destinct, and that live today through somewhat differeing economic development patterns" differing patterns that cannot simply be erased by the creation of a single currency." [Kaplan] Many ince the dawn of our species has been affected by geography. Geographic and climatice factors led to the development of humanity and the migration out of Africa to every corner of the different oeography has powerfully influenced the develooment of civilization and culture. Early man was at the mercy of thee geographic and climatic factors. Today we are able to understand geography and to an extent predict geological and climatic events, but not yet cpntrol them or even fully uunderstand them.

Civilization

Civilization itself is an artifact of geography. Civilization required agriculture which generated the needed wealth and the settleds lie style leading to urban life. This first appeared in river valleys because they were espcially fertile abd were the easiest placde to grow crops with the most basic technology.

Continents

We have not yet prepated a geographic assessment of the various continents. This is a little complicated because of cultural factors, most prominently in the Americas where North and Latin America seem more appropriate division than North and South America. As our site focuses so heavily on cultural matter, it makes sence to use the major cultural issues even when discussing geography. And unlike gology, geography includes as study of both physical and cultural matters. In the rest of the world, the standard continents are useful geographic divisions, although again there are cultural complications. Here Asia standsout as the dominat contient in both area and population. The major dicisiions are Central Asia, Soviet Asia, and East Asia, and South East Asia. We separate the Middle East out ffrom Asia and combine it with North Afria, again for cultural reasons because Islam is such a powerful force. The major division in Africa are North Africa and Sunb-saharan Africa becuse of the uncrossable Sahran Barrier. Oceania is a complication, primarily because Australia is generally seen as a continent by itself and except for New Guinea, the land area of Oceania is relatively small, although there is a.

Countries

All countries have been affected by geography. Some nore than others and in many different ways. Perhaps no country has been more affected by geograophy than Panama. It was even geography that led to its creation. Because Panama is an istmus where a canal connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans possible. Of the major countries, it is probably Russia with its vast Eurasian Steppe that has been the country most significantly affected by geography. The Steppe more than any other geographic feature has been an engine for genating history. The Stppepeople for a time have dominated both China and Russia as well striking into Europe and the Middle East. England's island geography has been both a protective shield and as with the Vikings an avenue for invasion. Germany's location in th middle of Europe has prevented its expansion and nearly led to Germany dominating Europe. Japan's island position enabled it to develop independently from China. America's separation from Europe by the Atlantic Ocean was a key element in its development and subsequent world history. Italy, a Mediterranean Peninsula, was perfectly posed to dominate the Mediteranean. Afghanistan's geography has played a role in invasions of India incliding the creation of the Moguhl Empire. Today the poprous borders with Pakistan make it a kind of supportive rear area for Pakistan's struggle with India. Neighboring Iran is in unique position of staddling the oil producing areas of the Caspian Sea and Persian Gulf. China's need for raw mterials have lead it into Africa and Southeast Asia, often suppoting brutal, repressive regimes leading to moral conflicys with the West.

Major Features

There are some geographic features that have played key roles in world history. They include bodies of water, deserts, planes, and mountains. Surely the most important is the vast Euro-Asian Steppe. One author claim that the stepp's 'pitiless' climate bred hard and cruel men. [Kaplan] We are not sure about that, but the steppe did bred warring tribes. They struck out of the steppe to the east and west. To the north and south the Steppe horsemen were stopped by the Arctic barrier and to the south the Gobi Desert and Himilayas. China has been the linch-pin of history, affecting European history before the Europeans were even aware of China. When China was strong the steppe tribes struck west. During periods of weakness in China the steppe tribes invaded the Middle Kingdom. The Himilayas and the Alps were both mountain shields. The Atlantic and Pacific Oceans cut off the Americas from the rest of humanity. River systems have played a huge tole in history, plaing a role in the creation of civilization. Rivers like the Nile, Tigris-Eurprates, Congo, Amazon, Mississippi, Yeloe , Yangste, and others have played enormous roles in world history and economics. And until the 19th century and the development of railroads they were critical to commerce. The English Channel has even before Roman times played a huge role in English history and as a result European history. It was the Channel that stopped the Spanish, Napoleon, and Hitler with enormous politica and economic consequences. Oceanns and seas have both united peoples through facilitating commerce as well as isolating the Native American peoples in North and South America. The Sahara is another major feature which seems to have played a major role in peopleing the Nile Valley and determining the ethnic makeup of North Africa and Equarorial Africa. One of the most notable geographic features is Gibraltar. It is a huge rock set in one of the most critical points imaginable. This peninsular at the southern tip of Spain has played an enormous role in history. An Anglo-Dutch force seized Gibraltar from Spain during the War of the Spanish Succession (1704). Spain was forced to cede Gibraltar to Britain 'in perpetuity' under the Treaty of Utrecht (1713). It became an important base for the Royal Navy, especially during the Napoleonic Wars and World War II.

Modern Trends

HBC is fortunate to have a geographer among its contributors. He tells us, "I have a Ph.D in what I like to think of as "Historical Geography." I was interested in trying to recreate landscapes (physical and cultural) from the past, and examine factors that impacted and shaped these landscapes. Geographers do other things, of course, such as develop Geographical Information Systems (GISs), hazards research, etc. Through the use of satellites. which revolutionized the collection of accurate place specific data, the GIS has led to such innovations as the directional systems in many cars today. Mapping of the Moon and Mars are extensions of this technology, although, I guess they can hardly be called 'geo', as in geography, any more, being out of this world. I am happy to report that university geography departments have grown in size since I was in school. Unfortunately, there has been a trend to merge geography with other disciplines into 'social studies'. Geographical Awareness quizzes have shown a need to go back to basics, because students have little knowledge of place names these days. School budgets and cutbacks in staff have been a problem."

Natural Resources

Natural resources are determined are highly influenced by geography. These resources have a huge impact on human activities, either attracting or warding off human populations. Natural resources significantly influence settlement patterns and economic development. Natural resources are substances found within the natural environment that can be utilized by humans for sustenance and economic development . There are two main types: 1) renewable and 2) Non-renewable resources. Renewable resources can be replenish by natural processes. They include air, forests, soil, sunshine, water, wind, and others. Human activity can impair or improve some of these resources to varying degrees. Non-renewable resources in contrast are finite. One exhausted, they can not be replenished, although technology can gain access to resources thought to be exhausted. Non-renewable resources include fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) and minerals. Both renewable and non-renewable resources are spread out unevenly over the globe, especially foil fuels and mineral resources. Natural resources play a critical role in shaping human society. Areas rich in resources like renewable resources (water and fertile soil) attract humans, at first hunter gathers and then agriculturists. The first important mineral was flint, used in making primitive tools. As civilizations developed metals become important, at first copper, then bronze (copper and tin), and finally iron. This led to the bronze and iron ages. minerals tend to attract populations due to economic opportunities. Resources are highly dispersed. Areas with important resources can develop dense populations. Without resources populations can be dense. Resources influence a county's trajectory, but are not determinative. There are highly successful countries without abundant natural resources (Israel, Japan, South Korea, and Switzerland). Conversely, there are countries which have abundant resources that are failed nations (Cuba, Congo, North Korea, and Venezuela). The availability of natural resources not only is determined by geography, but also by technology. In World War II, the Germans drove through Libya toward the Middle East in part because of the need for oil, but technology had not yet revealed that vast oil fields was right below the reads of their tanks on the battlefields of Libya. Technology impacts hunting, fishing, and agricultural productivity. It also influences industrial activities, transportation, and urban development. Agriculture was invented i river valleys, areas with abundant water and fertile sun. The Industrial Revolution occurred in the English midlands where coal and iron ore were found in close proximity. The uneven distribution of natural development and varying development levels can lead to power imbalances. The importance of natural resources can lead to conflict with groups or countries seeking to seize valuable resources from less-powerful entities. This is a story recounted in the Bible with the Hebrew people claiming the Promised Land and then Assyrians and Babylonians an final the Romans conquering the area. Nothing emphasizes this more than Silesia in central Europe, constantly fought over the centuries. And natural resources can impact power dynamics. The Bantu spread out over much of Africa bcause they developed Iron Age technology. The distribution of natural resources can lead to power imbalances between nations or regions. Countries rich in resources like oil or minerals can leverage these assets for economic gain and political influence, sometimes resulting in territorial disputes. The management of natural resources, especially renewable resources, is crucial for sustainable development. Over exploitation can lead to environmental degradation. It can reduce biodiversity, quality of life, and even civilization itself. Examples here include Easter Island and the Maya. In more immediate time, the Southern Confederacy By basing their agricultural economy on two crops (tobacco and cotton) that leached the life out of the soil, they were forced to expand. This effort to create new slave states led to the Civil War. Sustainable practices must balance resource utilization with environmental concerns to ensure that essential resources will be available to future generations.

Sources

Ambrose, Stanley. University of Illinois. Ambrose's theory is summarized in "Ancient 'Volcanic Winter' Tied To Rapid Genetic Divergence In Humans", Science Daily (September 8, 1998).

Cook, Michael. A Brief History of the Human Race (Norton, 2003), 385p.

Diamond, Jared. Guns, Germs and Steel.

Kaplan, Robert D. The Revenge of Geography: What the Map Tells Us About the Coming Conflicts and the Bttle Against Fate (2012).

Mahan, Alfred Thayer. The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660-1783 (1890).

Science (October 2, 2009). This special issues of Science include 11 aricles from 47 researchers presenting the findings on Ardipithecus ramidus after 15 years of work.

Created: 11:42 PM 9/30/2009
Last updated: 12:14 AM 7/6/2023