Figure 1.--Here we see Japanese peasany children at about the time of the Meiji Restoration, probably in the 1880s. Until the meiji Restiration, the peaantry was largely outside the national political sytem. But if Japan was going to become a player in internatiinal affairs, it was going to mean creating a large conscript army and this meant drafting the peasantry. This also meant undermining the Samarai Class.

Japan did not have a modern military or educatin system until after the Meiji Restoration (1868). The military for centuries had been dominated by the Samurai class, largely a kind of medival nobility similar to European knights. The new Japanese education stressed the idea of patriotic duty and devotion to the Emperor. Until this point the peasantry was largely outside the natinal, political system, uneducated and largely prey to the country's land owning nobility. But if Japan was going to become a player in internatiinal affairs, it was going to mean creating a large conscript army and this meant drafting the peasantry. National conscription began soon after the Meiji Restoration as part of a series of reforms (January 10, 1873). It was the beginning of important changes the country's social structure. Many conservatives, especially the old samurai class, objected because a modern military including the peasantry meant an end to the Samurai Class. This was the cause of the short-lived Satsuma Rebellion (1877). The Japanese used Prussia as a model for its new army and its conscription system. The new Conscription Law required every male at age 20 to register for 2 years of service and remain in reserve status, subject to recall, until age 40 years. First-born sons, students, and teachers were exempt. Inevitably, as as the bulk of the population was composed of the peasantry, the new Japanese Army would be composed of peasants. Unlike the medieval Samurai weapons, peasants could be trained to use modern firearms in a short period of time. This made the professional samurai warrior obsolete. And it also created a rare avenue of advancement for poor peasant boys--a factor in the extodinary fighting spirit of the Japanese soldier. At the sam time land reform was not part of the Maeiji reforms. (This will not come until after World War II and Japan surrendered to the Americans. Gen. MacArthur imposed it on Japan during the occupation.) The result was that Japan well into the 20th century had a depressed peasant class and an inefficent agricultural sector. Some aspects of the system caused dissension. All military conscripts were channeled to he Army for training and evaluation. as a result, the Imperial Navy basically got a lot of rejects the army didn�t want. This did not include the cadets accepted by the Navy Accademy. It did, however, feed into the intense rivalry which developed between the Imperial Army and Navy. Such rivalries existed in other coyntrues, but not to the extent of the rivalry which developed between yhe Imperial Army and Navy. The Navy was at first a minor service. It took longer to develop a modern navy than army. Here the British Royal Navy was the model. (Japan was a useful foilaginst the Russians during the Great Game competition.) The Imperial Navy gained immense prestige a a result of its stunning victory over the Russian fleet at Tsushima (1905). And its technical overtaking of the Army's air arm (late-1930s) made Pearl Harbor and the Japanese victories which followed it possible. Another problem was that many reservists with 2 years' experience were pressed back into service during World War II as the war expanded. They often resented having to take orders from younger officers and NCOs who outranked them. This caused another crack in Japan's traditiinal social system in which age was very important, but wa not important on the Pacific War battlefields. As the War began to go against Japan, the Conscrotion Law was changed. Exemtions were dropped and teenagers began to be conscripted. It is virtually impossible to understand Japanese calculation that the way to complete the conquest of China was to attack the United States. It proved within a year to be a catastrophic decision, but this was hid from the Japanese people until 1944. The Japanese militarists were forced to attempt to match the greater size and resources of the United States with a greater effort by the Japanese people. Eventually all healthy males aged 15-60 years as well as females aged 17-45 years were drafted. And we have noted younger uniformed school girls in factories. They may have been volunteers. Eventually a the Americans began to approach the Home Islands, the Ketsugo program was adopted. Military training wa expanded in schools and included pre-teen children, both boys and girls. One author writes, "Their weapons included ancient bronze cannon, muzzle loaded muskets, bamboo spears, and bows and arrows. Even little children had been trained to strap explosives around their waists, roll under tank treads, and blow themselves up. They were called "Sherman's carpets." This was the enemy the Pentagon had learned to fear and hate, a country of fanatics dedicated to hara-kiri, determined to slay as many invaders as possible as they went down fighting." [Manchester, pp. 510-11.] The males were to be used as soldiers. The girls seem to have been used more to maintain production in factories. They replaced male workers that had been conscripted for service at the front.

Meiji Restoration (1868)

Japan did not have a modern military or educatin system until after the Meiji Restoration (1868). With the coup d'état in 1867, the Shogun abdicated. An energetic new, young emperor for the first time in centuries actually ruled Japan. He took the title Meiji for his reign (1867-1912). He soon showed himself to be both competent and strong-willed. He proved to be especially adept at choosing wise officials to positions of influence. Japan under Meiji rule pursue a consistent policy with considerable success. He installed men from the formerly "outside clans" into the key positions of power. The new Government had taken power in part becauuse of the Shogun's decession to open Japan. They concluded, however, that given Western military superiority that convinced the men who took control in 1867 that anti-Western actions and policies, without the military power needed to defend the country, would be self defeating. They decided to mute their anti-Western attitudes while Japan built a modern military.

The Samurai

The Japanese military for centuries had been dominated by the Samurai class, largely a kind of medival nobility similar to European knights. A Samurail was a kind of Japanese knight. Medieval Japanese society was a feudal society much like medieval Europe, although the country was unifoed under one national leadership. There were many similarities such as extreme loyalty to the feudal lord, fighting skill, and honor unto death. One major difference was suicide. This was prohibited by the Christian church. Feudalism was knighthood (except as an honorific) was destroyed in Europe by a combination of the Renisssance, Reformtion, and the Enlightenment along with the related developmnts, capitalism and democrcy. None of this occurred in Japan which remained a feudal sociery at the time of the arrival of Commodore Perry and the Black Ships (1853). This set in motion a modernization process, but at the time of World War II was still in many ways a feudal society with much of the land owned by a landed aristocracy. The Meiji Restoration occured (1868). A wide range of reforms followed to modrnize Japan. One of those reforms was aimed at the traditional rights and privileges of the Samurai class.

Japanese Schools

Japan as part of thge Meiji Festoration launched Asia's first universal public school system. Until after World war II, it was the only such system in Asia, except for the Philippines which the Ameriucans seized in the Spanish-American War (1898). The compulsory 6-year primary system educated viurtually all children. The secondary system was more selective, meaning primarily for the middle class. The university system was even more eltist, but that said was the only important university system in Asia with a modern curuculum. The first universiuty was Tokyo University (1877). Both boys anf girls were educated in the prinmary schools. The secondary and esedcially the university system focused on boys. Even so the Japanese had more girls in secondary and tertiary schools than any other Asian country. By the time Japan launched the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937), Japan had a modern higger education system -- 259 teritary institutions. [Shillony, p. 769.] The new Japanese education was highly nationalistic, ssenm=ntially xenephobic. This was in keeping with the whole idea of the Meiji Restoration--modernize Japan so it could not be like China dominated by the Western powers. Even before the militarists seized contol, Japane schools stressed the idea of patriotic duty and devotion to the Emperor.

The Peasantry

Hierarchy is a central aspect of feudalism. eudal Japan was dominated by warrior class--the Samurai. Most of the populoation waspeasants. The peasantry until the Meiji Restorationy was largely outside the national, political system, uneducated and largely prey of the country's land-owning nobility. But if Japan was going to become a player in internatiinal affairs, it was going to mean creating a large conscript army and this meant drafting the peasantry. Japan was still a basically feudal scociety when Commodore Perry and his Black Ships sailed into Tokyo Bay (1853). As in feudal Europe, their main role was agricultural labor. Some engaged in craft work. Rice was the most coveted agricultural crop. But many peasants coul not afford to eat rice, but survived on millet and other subsistence crops. Much of the peasantry was landedless and worked on the estates of the great fedal lords--the Daimyo. The Daimyo were the landholding and often waring feudal lords who dominated Japan (900s-1600s). The country was divided into several territories. They werevthecounterpart of the English barons. Only unlike England, therewould be no Magna Carta. Japan was unified by an important Daimyo, Tokugawa Ieyasu. He consolidated power by defeating the last of his powerful enemies in the Battle of Sekigahara (1600). This theoretically ended the feudal era. The Tokugawa shogunate dominated Japan (1600-1868). The Shogun's victory, however, did not change the social structure of Japan. The Daimyos while now suservient to the Shogun, still owned much of the countr's agricultural land which the peasantry worked. The peasantry was stratified into various levels, basically farmers, craftsmen, and merchants. The peasant farmers labored in the fields. Something like half of their rice harvest want to the landlords. They wore simple clothes made from hemp and cotton. The children's clothese here is a good example (figure 1). Peasant craftsmen worked with both metal and wood. The greatest prestige came from making swords. Merchants were also part of the peasant classs. Unlike their position in feudal Europe, they were the lowest ranking level because they were preceived as gaining from the work of others--a rather Marxian concept centuries before Marx.

National Conscription Law (1873)

National conscription began soon after the Meiji Restoration as part of a series of reforms (January 10, 1873). It was the beginning of important changes the country's social structure. Many conservatives, especially the old Samurai Class, objected because a modern military including the peasantry meant an end to the Samurai. This was the cause of the short-lived Satsuma Rebellion (1877). The Japanese used Prussia as a model for its new army and its conscription system. The new Conscription Law required every male at age 20 to register for 2 years of service and remain in reserve status, subject to recall, until age 40 years. First-born sons, students, and teachers were exempt. Inevitably, as as the bulk of the population was composed of the peasantry, the new Japanese Army would be composed of peasants. Along with the Meiji educatioinal system, the National Conscription law played a major role in brininging a already basically compliant peasantry within the new national ethos of Meiji Japan. nlike the medieval Samurai weapons, peasants could be trained to use modern firearms in a short period of time. This made the professional Samurai warrior obsolete, but it allowed the military to indocrinate basically three geberatioins og Jpanese of all classes ujnto the warrior spirit and the Bushido code. No other World War II beligerant had soldiers who fought with such unquestioned ferocity with a total disdregard of life. No other country had soldiers who opreferred death to surrender as the Marines first encountered on Guadalcanal. And even many civilans refused to surrender as the Americans first encountered on Saipan. The military conscription program furtherr strengthend the regime and commitment to it because it created a rare avenue of advancement for poor peasant boys--a factor in the extodinary fighting spirit of the Japanese soldier. At the same time land reform was not part of the Maeiji reforms. (This will not come until after World War II and Japan surrendered to the Americans. Gen. MacArthur imposed it on Japan during the occupation.) The result was that Japan well into the 20th century had a depressed peasant class and an inefficent agricultural sector.

Issues

Some aspects of the Conscription Service caused dissension. All military conscripts were initially channeled to the Army for training and evaluation. as a result, the Imperial Navy basically got a lot of men which the army didn't want--essentially rejects. This did not include the cadets accepted by the Navy Accademy. It did, however, feed into the intense rivalry which developed between the Imperial Army and Navy whichbwould prove to nbe a majorv factor in the Pacific War. Such rivalries existed in other countries, but not to the extent of the rivalry which developed between the Imperial Army and Navy. The Navy was at first a minor service. It took longer to develop a modern navy than army because ofvthge greater level of technology developed. Here the British Royal Navy was the model. (Japan was a useful foil against the Russians during the Great Game competition.) The Imperial Navy gained immense prestige a a result of its stunning victory over the Russian fleet at Tsushima (1905). And its technical overtaking of the Army's air arm (late-1930s) made Pearl Harbor and the Japanese victories which followed it possible. Another poblem was that many reservists with 2 years experience were pressed back into service during World War II as the war expanded. They often resented having to take orders from younger officers and NCOs who outranked them. This caused another crack in Japan's traditiinal social system in which age was very important, but dioes notv appear to have been important on the Pacific War battlefields. As the War began to go against Japan, the Conscrotion Law was changed. Exemtions were dropped and teenagers began to be conscripted. It is virtually impossible to understand Japanese calculation that the way to complete the conquest of China was to attack the United States. It proved within a year to be a catastrophic decision, but this was largely hidden from the Japanese people until 1944 when Prime0-minister Toijo was foirced to resign..

Empire Forces

The Japanese war effort was almost entirely fought by Japanese units. There were, however, a range of allied forces. Formosan (Taiwanese) and Korean subjects of the Jaoanese Empire could volunteer for service (beginning 1938). Formosa was added to he Empire (1894) and Korea (1909). Opening up the military appears to have been permitted because of the quamire in China and need for additional recruits. Few were trained for combat. Most invariably were assigned to labor battalions. We are not sure if the Japanese questioned their martial spirit or did not want non-Japanese to acquire military skills, perhaps both. The Americans first encountered Korean labor batalions on Guadalcanal (August 1942). We have not noted Formosan labor batallions. As the war situation became desperate, the Japanese began drafting Koreans into service (1944) and Formosans (1945). Siam (Thiland) was a Japanese Axis ally. The Thai Army's major actiion was with the Vichy French over disputed territory. As far as we know there was no significant action againsdt Allied forces. We do not notice Manchurians being drafted, but our information is limited. The Japanese also did not draft Chinese, although we notice that the developed alliances with Chinese war lord forces. And the Wang Jingwei puppet regime was allowed to form military units (1940-45). Some seem to have been men from the Nationalist Forces capture by the Jaoanese. Here our infornmation is limited. We do not have any infornation aboout how these units were utikized and their their performance. In addition after launching the Pacifuc War, the Japanese promoted Bose's Indian National Army. Thgere were also militiua forces organized in some of the occupied territories, primarily the Dutch East Indies. None of these forces played a significant role in the War.

Expanded Concription

The Meiji conscription system would prove adequate For World War I (1914-18), but began to crack after Japan's militarist dominated goverment became increasingly aggresive. Chaing's Nariinlist Givernent decided not to resist when Japan seized Manchuriua (1931). Japan's intrusion into northern China turned into a full scale war (1937). Unexpectedly the Chinese continued to resist despite major defeats. A nd this created the need for an expanded army. The Japanese did not expect such significant Chinese resistance. This conscription had to be exapanded. The first changes were to allow Koreans and Formosans to volunteer. Previously a relatively small share of the available young men were drafted. With the war in China, conscription began to increase and deferments reduced. Japan thus fielded the kargest army in its history. Japan launched the Pacific War by attacking Pearl Harbor (December 1941). , the great majority of the Japanese Army was in China. The early Japanese victories were achieved with a small portion of the Army against poorly trained and armed Western forces, mostly colonial policing forces. The American units in the Philippines retreated to Bataan and were basically starved out. The easy naval victories ceased with Midway (June 1942) and then the Japanaese Armny encountered real resistance by trained and well-armed combat troops, first on Gudalcanal from the Americans (August 1942) and New Guinea by the Australians (September 1942). This is when losses increased and more men were needed. The Pacific War thus forced wholesale changes in the Meiji Concription System. The Japanese militarists were forced to attempt to match the greater size and resources of the United States with a greater effort by the Japanese people. The Goverment began to expand the age ranges for military service (1943). Eventually all healthy males aged 15-60 years as well as females aged 17-45 years were drafted. And we have noted younger uniformed school girls in factories. As the military situation in World War II became more desperate. University syudents who at first received deferments began to be drafted. This was at first done by shortening the final year, but gradually other changes were made in the academic program. Then as a result of increasing lossess, the Army began drafting all makes over 20 years, including college students (September 1943). [Shillony, p. 778.] This occurred at about the same time that Japan began to experimenbt with the first Kamnakaze suicide attacks. This is part of the reason that such a high percentage of college level enlistees were assigned to the 'Special Attack' Kamikaze squadrons. Next youths under 20, some as young as 15 years old, were made eligible for military service (1944) The National Resistance Program was adopoyed (February 26, 1945). This made men 15 to 60 and women 17 to 40 subject to training for a projected final defense of the homeland asinvasion was looking increasingly likely.

Ketsugo

Eventually a the Americans began to approach the Home Islands, the Ketsugo program was adopted. Military training wa expanded in schools and included pre-teen children, both boys and girls. One author writes, "Their weapons included ancient bronze cannon, muzzle loaded muskets, bamboo spears, and bows and arrows. Even little children had been trained to strap explosives around their waists, roll under tank treads, and blow themselves up. They were called "Sherman's carpets." This was the enemy the Pentagon had learned to fear and hate, a country of fanatics dedicated to hara-kiri, determined to slay as many invaders as possible as they went down fighting." [Manchester, pp. 510-11.] The males were to be used as soldiers. The girls seem to have been used more to maintain production in factories. They replaced male workers that had been conscripted for service at the front.

Sources

Manchester, William. American Caesar: Douglas MacArthur 1880-1964.

Shillony, Ben-Ami. “Universities and Students in Wartime Japan,” The Journal of Asian Studies Vol. 45, No. 4, (1986), pp. 769–787.

Stephens, Richard W. "So eager to get into the fight," Washington Post (May 28, 2004), p. W10.

Created: 6:29 PM 4/4/2019
Last updated: 9:41 PM 10/9/2020