Figure 1.-- In the wake of the liberating armies, Resistance fighters quickly sought out collaborators. Some of those who actively collaborated with the Germans in a serious way were shot. Civilians also went after young women known to have had affairs with German soldiers. Here the focus was on humiliation. Here two such women have had their heads shaved, swasticas painted on their foreheads, and are being forced to walk throiugh the streets of Paris barefoot. Notice the number of women here participating in the event. Source: U.S. Army.

Collaboration was a term that Marshall Petain introduced. It did not at first have a sinister connotation. Rather most French people still in shock at the Germany victory were inclined to support Petain and his Vichy regime. At the time there seemed no altrnative. Collaboration was not just a small minor footnote to the War. France becanme a very imortant support to the German war effort. Hitler had expected to support the war economy by looting the East. What happened was that it was the occupied West that was the mainstay of the German war machine, especially France. Thus collaboration was a vital part of the German war machine. And Vichyv eased the way to allow the Germans to effectively make full benefit of the French economy. As the Germans experienced military reverses, French attitudes began to change. The increasing severity of German occuption, especially the conscription of French workers for work in the Reich was a major factor. Vichy and collaboration continues to be a very sensitive subject in France. Collaboration took many forms. Some French actively helped the Germans hunt down Jews, including Jewish children, and members of the Resistance. A number of French women collaborated by associating with German soldiers. There is of course a vast differece between the two extreems and many levels of collaboration in between. There were a variety of summary actions in the heat of Liberation. In improvised local actions during the first weeks after the Liberation. About 1,000 persons are believed to have been executed, mostly by the Communists. Many women had their hair shaved publically or were otherwise humiliated. Their primary crime was liasons with German soldiers. A French Provision Government was formed (August) and very quickly took action to prevent such summary executions. [Lottman] Many were arrested and tried for collaboration after the War. Officers of the Vichy Government were some of targets of these procecutions. Admiral Darlan was sentenced to death. Marshall Petain was sentenced to a long jail term. The Gaullists nurtured a myth that the great majority of the French people bravely resisted the Germans.

Vichy Collaboration

Collaboration was a term that Marshall Petain introduced for his Vichy regime. It did not at first have a sinister connotation. Rather most French people still in shock at the Germany victory were inclined to support Petain and his Vichy regime. At the time there seemed no altrnative. Collaboration was not just a small minor footnote to the War. France becanme a very imortant support to the German war effort. Hitler had expected to support the war economy by looting the East. What happened was that it was the occupied West that was the mainstay of the German war machine. The French economy was especially important to the Germans. Thus collaboration was a vital part of the German war machine. And Vichyv eased the way to allow the Germans to effectively make full benefit of the French economy. There was also military collaboration. There was also military colaboration

Changing Attitudes

As the Germans experienced military reverses, French attitudes began to change. Major defeats in North Africa and the East (1942-43) made it clear that the Germans were losing the War, even with a NAZI/Vichy controlled press. The increasing severity of German occuption, especially the conscription of French workers for work in the Reich was a major factor in changing French attitudes. What most French had no idea about, even the Vivhy mjen, was what the Germans planned to do to Frnce after they won the War. German occupation policy was in partbgoverned by the need to maintain public order to more efficently exploit the French economy during the War. Vichy and collaboration continues to be a very sensitive subject with the French who prefer to talk about the heroic resistance.

Types of Collaboration

Collaboration took many forms. Politicans all over France collaborated in a variety of ways and for various reasons. Some saw no choice and did so in a misguided attempt to save France. Others thoughtvthey could benefit personally by working with the Germans. Sorting out motives is a difficult undertaking. Businessment also collaborated. This also varied. Perhaps the most disheatening aspect of collaboration was the extentv to whichb the klegal system, jurists, lawyers, and police alike collaborated with the Germans. The Milice was formed becoming essentially a Fascist militia that allied themselves with the Germans. Some French, including the police, actively helped the Germans hunt down Jews, including Jewish children, and members of the Resitance. There were alson individuals who informed secretly, often forthev most minor patments. A number of French women collaborated by associating with German soldiers. The French term was 'colaboracion horizontal'. Particularly hated were the women who walked arm and arm with German soldiers down French streets. We are not sure how much this happened as opposed to more clandestine assiciations. Here motives also varied. Some women fell inn love. Others were atracted by the benefits associating with the occupiers could bring, such as food and cinsumer goods. There is of course a vast differece between the two extreems and many levels of collaboration in between. There were a variety of summary actions in the heat of Liberation. In improvised local actions during the first weeks after the Liberation.

Fraterization

There was no organized kidnapping of children in France for Eindeutschung ( Germanisation ) as was the case in Poland and several other countries. The Germans had, however, a large occupation force in France. The inevitable result was a substantial number of children fathered by German soldiers. One estimate suggests 50,000 through May 1943. Himmler thought that the children of a French woman with a German soldier could produce suitable children for "Eindeutschung". Although not as entusiastic as with the children fathered by German soldiers in Norway, Himmler still saw the French children as "valuable German blood". The SS opened a Lebenborn home near Chantilly called Westwald. There were disagreements amomg the French as to how to deal with these children. Many were hostile. The widow of French General Huntzinger argued that they should be integrated into the French society. Despite the stigma of having a German boy friend, the women involved reportedly avoided the Lebensborn at Westwald because the SS insisted that the babies be given up for adoption in Germany. Another source of children was the many french prisoners and slave laborers brought from France to work in Germany and Austria. Some French men fathered babies, but these would be cared for by the mother. It was not the same for the women workers. They were obliged to give it up to a German family for adoption.

Retribution

In the heady days as American Sherman tanks rolled through village after villge liberating France there were joyous celebrations in the streets and town plazas. At the same time a wave of summary actions occurred, what the French now call the 'épuration sauvage'.) Armed Resistance groups sought out collaborators. This was a pricess that began clandestinely even during the occupation. There are no precise statistics available here. One French siurce suggests that the Resistance assasinated abiut 6,000 collaborators duringthe occupation. The Germans did not react with reprisals in the same way when Germans were killed. Therc were another estimated 4,000 executions in the immediate aftermathb iof liberation. the Communists whon were particularly active in the armed resistance were responsible fir many iof these executions. Members of the Milicie were often targeted. Many women at this time had their hair shaved publically or were otherwise humiliated. One source suggests that this was the fate of some 20,000 young women. Their primary crime was liasons with German soldiers. Today there us a tendencybto excuse these women as naive victims of the heart. In some cases this was the case. In other instances it was aatter iof survuival, a way of obtaining food. Others were calculating women with no scruples. The issue can be argued endlessly. A French Provision Government was formed (August) and very quickly took action to prevent summary executions. [Lottman] Black marketeers were labed war profiteers and also targeted. General DeGualle acted quickly to control the situation, even before the liberation of Paris. He issued ordinances on the judgment of collaborators by the commissions d'épuration (June 26-27, 1944). In thev immediate aftermath of liberation, these regulations could not be enforced. The Provisional Government of the French Republic (1944-46) dominated by the Guallists, howver, raoidly assumed control . The French legal system took over, a legal system whichb incudentally had itself collabirated with the Germans. Punishuing collaborators moved into the Guallists Commissiions and eventually the more formal courts, Many were arrested and tried for collaboration after Liberation. The Guallists commissions found about 120,000 persons guity and sentencd them. This included a number of prominent figures. Officers of the Vichy Government were some of the primary targets of these procecutions. The Germans had brought leading figures back to the Reich, sone againstv their will (August 1944). Theyv were arrested their and brought back to France for procecution (July 1945). Admiral Darlan was sentenced to death. Marshall Petain was also sentenced to death by firing squad, but General de Gaulle commuted the sentence to life imprisonment. Charles Maurras, the leader of the royalist Action française was sentenced to life imprisonment (January 25, 1945) Author and anti-Semite Louis-Ferdinand Céline was named a collaborator and convicted in absentia (1950). The official French courts sentenced 6,763 people to death, mote than hald in in absentia (1944-51). The convictions were for treason and a varietybof other offences. French authorities only carried out 791 executions. More common punishments were 'national degradation'. This involved public disgrace and a loss of civil rights. Some 49,723 people received this sentence. [Judt, p. 46.] Attitudes in France changed considerably after the War. Officials of the Fourth French Republic (1946–54) began granting amnesty to many of those convicted.

French Myth

Justice for collaborators prived a very difficult matter. Informing was commonly donevin secret and the Gestapo was not talking. The politicians and police insisted they had no choice and they acted tob protect thec Frenchb people from a more severe German occupation. Assesing motives proved very difficult. More importantly, collaboration was so extensive that the Gaulist officials early on realized that it cut at the soulmof the nation. The Gaullists nurtured a myth that the great majority of the French people bravely resisted the Germans. This was not the case. The Resistance was undeniably brave, but it not involve a majority of the population.

Sources

Judt, Tony. Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945 (Pimlico: London, 2007).

Lottman, Herbert R. The Purge: The Purification of French Collaborators after World War II.

Created: 4:12 AM 10/6/2008
Last updated: 6:59 PM 6/26/2013