Figure 1.--The Nationalist capital of Chunking became the most heavily bombed city in China. It was not bombed as heabily as European cities only because the Japanese had a smaller bomber force than the Allies and Germans and China was a nuch larger country. The press caption read, "These rods and sticks once made a home in chunking: A Chinese woman and her two young ones silently survey wreckage of yesterday's life, destroyed in an air-raid a few hours before. Chunking's 'bombing season', that comes with summer, is on. Chunking's 350,000 civilians are comparatively safe during the the daily air-raids think to the hundreds of dugouts that habve been blastedfrom the sides of the soli sanstone hill on which Chunking has been built. Seventy-five percent of China's wartime capital has been destroyed, and hundreds of the population are made homeless every day by raids causing destruction such as that pictured above. But Chunking is cointinuously being rebuilt and today literally is a 'phoenix city' -- a city tht is riding from the ashes. Medical and relief aid to China's war victims is being sent through United China Relief." The Japanese leadership responsible for these attacks, like the Germans assuned tht bombing was something that they did to other countries. The leadership seem totally oblivious to the fact that the United states it was planning to attack had the capability of building an airforce that could dwarf that of Japan and that Japanese cities were built of wood and paper.

The Japanese invaded China after an indident at the Marco Polo Bridge (July 1937). Again local commanders played a central role. This was the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese war. The major battle was fought over Shanghai. Chinese resistance surprised the Japanese, both in the air and on land. The Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) commited air units to the struggle. They introduced their advanced long-range G3M medium-heavy land-based bombers. They also used their carrier-based aircraft. They expected to easily destroy the small Chinese Air Force, but encountered unexpectedly effective resistance. The Chinese had Hawk III and P-26/281 Peashooter fighter squadrons. Chang after losing some of his best divisions and most of his Air Force began to avoid major battles with the better armed and more disciplined Japanese. As the war continued, Both the Imperial Japanese Navy and Army conducted a strategic bombing campaign, as far as we know without coordination. The targets were primarily the large cities in Nationalist hands. Some of the hrdest hit cities were shnghai, Wuhan, and Chunking. Nanking and Canton were alo heavily hit (September 1937). Some of these cities, especially Nanking and Canton had large numbers of Europeans and thus elicited many reports of the Japanese bombings which clearly targeted civilians rather than military targets. The League of Nations condemned the Japanese. A Brutish official described the Japanese bombing, "Words cannot express the feelings of profound horror with which the news of these raids had been received by the whole civilized world. They are often directed against places far from the actual area of hostilities. The military objective, where it exists, seems to take a completely second place. The main object seems to be to inspire terror by the indiscriminate slaughter of civilians..." 【Lord Cranborne】 We have never seen an authoritative assessment of Japanese targeting instructions. It is clear that civilian instalatuons were hit, including hospitals clearly painted wuth red cross symbols. To what extent these facilities were specufically trgeted we are not yet sure, Nor or we sure to what extent the Japanese higher-level commnders or the flight commanders selected the targets we are not sure. The air attacks were followed by land attacks and occupation, often leading to horrific actions, such as the rape of Nanking. The Chinese, unable to protect their major cities, simply moved deeper into the interior of the country beyond the reach of the Japanese Army. Distance and difficult terrain made the logistics of following the Nationalists with sizable forces impossible and very expenive. The Japanese were hard-pressed to occupy the area already seized. The Nationalist Army could not be engaged effectively so deep in the interior by the Imperial Army, but interior cities were not beyond the range of Japanese bombers. The air war in Asia began as in the European theater with mastery of the skies by the Japanese. The small Chinese air force was quickly brushed aside and after the first year virtually non-existent. The relocated Chinese capital of Chunking (Chongqing) became a major city in southwestern China located at the confluence of the Yangtze and Jialing rivers. The first raids caused wide-spread panic as there were no bomb shelters. Gradually the city adjusted. People moved into caves for protection. Thus the Japanese, who would after the war complain bitterly about the bombing of their cities, engaged in virtually unopposed terror bombing of Chinese cities for more than a decade. A total of 268 air raids were conducted against Chunking more than 11,500 bombs dropped, mainly incendiary bombs. The targets were largely residential areas, business areas, schools, hospitals (non-military targets). These bombings were probably aimed at cowing the Nationlists. Until the arrival of the American Flying Tigers, the Japanese raids were largely unopposed.

Japanese Invasion

The Japanese invaded China proper after an indident at the Marco Polo Bridge (July 1937), launching the Second Sino-Japanese War. (July 1937). Again local Japanese commanders played a central role. The Japanese Kwantung Army turned a small incident into a full-scale war. Chinese forces were unable to effectively resist the Japanese. The Japanese military was not only better armed and organized, they were also incredibly brutal. The major battle was fought over Shanghai. Chinese resistance surprised the Japanese, both in the air and on land. The rape of Nanking was some of the most terrible atrocities of World War II. The Japanese methodically moved south, seizing control of most of eastern China and all of the major ports by the time war broke out in Europe. (1939). The Kuomintang Army was battered, but the Japanese were unable to destroy it. Chiang used the same tactics that Mao and the Communists had used, withdraw into the rugged, easily defensible interior. The Japanese moved up rivers and railroad lines into the interior of China. Much of the Japanese Army was committed to the war in China. It did not prove as draining for Japan, however, as the Soviet campaign did for Germany. This was in pat because of the ineffectiveness of the Kuomintang Army. Resistance to the Japanese fell primarily on the Kuomintang because the Communists were in the remote areas of northwestern China. Also neither Chiang or Mao wanted to weaken their forced by fighting pitched battles with the Japanese.

Japanese Air Operations

The Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) commited air units to the struggle. They introduced their advanced long-range G3M medium-heavy land-based bombers. They also used their carrier-based aircraft. They expected to easily destroy the small, poorly equipped Chinese Air Force, but encountered unexpectedly effective resistance. The Chinese Air Force faced the increasingly sophuisticated Imperial Japanese Army and Navy Air Forces. They engaged the Japanese in many aerial sctions. T his included the interception of Japanese bombers attacking Japanese cities. Here the major Japanese tactic was terrior. Unlike Euriope, there were few factories producing war material in even the larger Chinese cities. The Japanese believed that these terror raids would convince the Chinese people to surrdr to the Japanese. Of course the suffering of the Chimese people was not bout to affect Nationalist or Communist Commanders. And the bombing abd other actions of Japanese barbarity only created a viseral hatred toward the Japanese that lingers in China and Korea even to this day. The air battles over China in the first year of the War were the largest aerial engagements fought since World War I. They were aerial battles, however, that the small Chinese Air Force could not sustain. The Chinese put up a valiant defense, but were overwheaklmed. It was first taste of combat for the Japanese airforces and a opportunity to hone their skills. It was also an opportunity for the Western powers to learn about Japanese air power. 【Hui】 Traguically, Western powers took little note of the growing Japanese power--especially Japanese air pwer. This include reports from retired Army Air Corps officer Claire Chennault who Madam Chang had hired to advise the Chinese Air Force. Hec arrived in China a month before the Japanese attacked (June 1937). 【Cheault】 The Japanese destroyed the Chinese Air Force (1937). And until Chenault returned with the Flying Tigers auhorized by President Roosevelt (December 1941), Chinese cities had no defense agasinst Japanese bombers. Madam Chang was the unofficial head of the Chinese Air Force. asnd would play a central role in the formation of the American Flying Tigers.

Chinese Air Force

The Chinese had Hawk III and P-26/281 Peashooter fighter squadrons.

Chinese Tactics

Chang after losing some of his best divisions and most of his Air Force began to avoid major battles with the better armed and more disciplined Japanese.

Japanese Terror Bombing

The Japanese encontered much more difficulties in China than they had anticipated. China is a huge country. And the Nationalist Army put up a substantial defense. With Japanese casualties and costs mounting, the Imperial General Headquarters attempted to break Chinese resistance by ordering the air branches of their navy and army to launch the war's first massive air raids on civilian targets. As the war continued, both the Imperial Jpaanese Navy and Army began a bombing campaign, as far as we know without coordination. The targets were primarily the large cities in Nationalist hands. Some of the hardest hit cities were Wuhan, and Chunking. Nanking and Canton were alo heavily hit (September 1937). Some of these cities, especially Nanking and Canton had large numbers of Europeans and thus elicited many reports of the Japanese bombings which clearly targeted civilians rather than military targets. China did not have major war industries. Thus this was not strategic bombing. It was terror bombing pure and simple. The targets were thus not nonexistent industries, but was from the beginning the Chinese people. The Chinese strategy was to withdraw deeper into the interior where the Japanese Arny had trouble reaching them. This after the eraly victories in coastal areas, it was only the bombers that could reach the Chiunese interior. The Japanese captured Wuhan (October 27, 1938). The KMT retreated to Chongqing (Chungking) which was far into the rugged interior that the Japanese were unable to get to them. Chiang Kai-shek continued to refuse to negotiate until Japan agreed to withdraw to the pre-1937 borders. The Japanese were not about to withdraw. While the Japanese Army could not get to Chungking, their bombers could. Thus air power became an imoportant part of Japanese efforts to conquer China. Japanese raiders not only hit the Kuomintang's newly established provisional capital of Chongqing, but most other major cities in unoccupied China. After the destruction of the Nationlist Air Firce (1937), Chinese cities had little or no air defenses. Chongqing (重庆大轰炸) as Chinese capital was the primary target. The raids occurred (February 1938-August 1943). They contunued for 4 years while China has little or no air defense. Only with the arrival of the American AVG Flying Tigers did the Japanese begin to enconter resistance and experience any number of losses. The Japanese conducted some 268 air raids on Chongqing, dropping 11,500, mostly incendiary bombs. In World War II terms this was not a heavy bombing, but it still wrecked terrible destruction in a city crammed with refugees. The Japanese seemed to have targeted military facilities to the extent that they could be located, but for the nost part simply bombed the cities meaning residential areas, business areas, schools, hospitals and other non-military targets. The Japanese at first believed such bombing would force the Chinese to surrender. It did not. They continued bombing anyway when the Chinese refused to surrender. The bombing only ended when American air power gained air superority over China.

League Condemnation

The League of Nations condemned the Japanese. Lord Cranborne, the British Under-Secretary of State For Foreign Affairs, described the Japanese bombing. "Words cannot express the feelings of profound horror with which the news of these raids had been received by the whole civilized world. They are often directed against places far from the actual area of hostilities. The military objective, where it exists, seems to take a completely second place. The main object seems to be to inspire terror by the indiscriminate slaughter of civilians..." [ Lord Cranborne] We have never seen an authoritative assessment of Japanese targeting instructions. It is clear that civilian instalatuons were hit, including hospitals clearly painted wuth red cross symbols. To what extent these fcilities were specufically trgeted we are not yet sure, Nor or we sure to what extent the Japanese higher-level commanders or the flight commanders selected the targets we are not sure.

Land Assault

The air attacks were followed by land attacks and occupation. The primary objective at first was Shanghai. Occuption of Chinese cities often leading to horrific actions, such as the rape of Nanking. The Chinese, unable to protect their major cities, simply moved deeper into the interior of the country beyond the reach of the Japanese Army. Distance and difficult terrain made the logistics of following the Nationalists with sizable forces impossible and very expenive. The Japanese were hard-pressed to occupy the area already seized.

American Aid for China

Chinese-Americans began raisung funds for China after the Japanese seized Mnchuria (1931). Chinese groups formed many committees were to raising funds to aid the Chinese people. This effort increased when the Japanese invaded China proper (1937). The Nationalist Army had retired into the interior and was difficult for the Japanese to get to without increasing their invasion and oppupation force. The United Stared Government at first protetesed and then begam nom-beligerant actions to push Japan to end its aggression in China. This began with moral embargoes (1938). Chinese immigrant organizations to make the raising of funds more efficient by reducing duplication of effort, several committees joined together in 1941 to found United China Relief (UCR>. It was chartered in the State of New York, with its headquarters in New York City. Among the founding organizations were the American Bureau for Medical Aid to China, the Associated Boards for Christian Colleges in China, the China Emergency Relief Committee, the Church Committee for China Relief, and the China Aid Council. UCR sought to provide funds for the relief and rehabilitation of the Chinese people. UCR also aimed at informing Americans on events and conditions in China. Chinese officials hope for a great American Government commitment to China. Here UCR and Church groups with missionary activities in China were having some impact. The United States Government began applying economic sanctions against Japan and provide aid to the Nationalists. The United States wuth the Export Control began to transition from moral to legal emnbrgoes on Jpn. . Sectretary Hull's Four Principles were demands for Japan to withdraw from China (April 1941). This was followed by an oil embargo, an econinc sanction that Japan could not ignore (July 1941). The first direct military aid wouldbe the Anerican volunteer Grroup (AVG)--the Flying Tigers (December 1941).

Interior Cities

The Nationalist Army could not be engaged effectively so deep in the interior by the Imperial Army, but interior cities were not beyond the range of Japanese bombers. The air war in Asia began as in the European theater with mastery of the skies by the Japanese. The small Chinese air force was quickly brushed aside and after the first year virtually non-existent. The relocated Chinese capital of Chunking (Chongqing) became a major city in southwestern China located at the confluence of the Yangtze and Jialing rivers. The first raids caused wide-spread panic as there were no bomb shelters. Gradually the city adjusted. People moved into caves for protection. Thus the Japanese, who would after the war complain bitterly about the bombing of their cities, engaged in virtually unopposed terror bombing of Chinese cities for more than a decade. A total of 268 air raids were conducted against Chunking more than 11,500 bombs dropped, mainly incendiary bombs. The targets were largely residential areas, business areas, schools, hospitals (non-military targets). These bombings were probably aimed at cowing the Nationlists. Until the arrival of the American Flying Tigers, the Japanese raids were largely unopposed, but had only limited military impact.

Sources

Chennault, Claire. Way of a Fighter (New York: Putnam's, 1949). Chennault had retired from the U.S. Army ir Corps, in large measure because he insisted on the impotance of fighter aircraft in an airforce dominated by the Bombers Boys. Chennsult would ultimately command the American Voluneer Group (AVG) -- the Flying Tigers. He had an answer to the Zero even before the Pacific War broke out. The authorities in Washington ignored his reports.

Lord Cranborne, the British Under-Secretary of State For Foreign Affairs.

Hui, Samuel. "Chinese Air Force vs. the Empire of Japan". War Bird Forum..

Created: 7:28 AM 9/22/2015
Last updated: 12:59 AM 4/24/2023