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The period between the KMT attack of the Communists and the Japanese invasion is often referred to as the Nanjing Decade--after the KMT capital (1928-37). The KMT nominally controled all of China. And Chiang significantly expanded the strength and authority of the centeral givernment. Even so, large areas of China were beyond his conrol. Local warlords or warlord coalitions while nominally recognizing the KMT Governent were in effective control of large areas. Especially importabnt were Feng Yuxiang and Yan Xishan. The Japanese Kwantung Army was a major force in Manchuria and finally seized control (1931). The Communists also resisted repeated KMT attacks finally withdrawing to remote north-western China beyound the reachbof KNT armies. The KMT's control was strongest in the eastern regions of China around Nanjing. The Central Plains War (1930) and the Japanese seizure of Manchuria (1931) helped to strengthen Chiang's authority. Chiang did not respnd to the Japanese seizure of Manchuria. He recognized that his forces involved with fighting the Communists, did not have the capability of fighting the well-equipped Japanese. Rather he continued his series of pacification drives. Chiang insisted, 'pacification first, resistance later'. Popular opinion in China, however, became stridently anti-Japanese. Not only had the Japanese seized Manchuria, but military operations in Shanghai (1932), and the seizure of Jehol (1933). Boycott drives affected sales of Japanese goods, undercutting Japanese economic policy. Many Chinese asked why Chiang was fightingthe Communists rather than the Japanese. iang's generals were also unhappy with him. The Communists in late-1936 helped convince Kuomintang generals to take him hostage (late-1936). Eventually an anti-Japanese alliance was negotiated. Zhou Enlai played an important role. Despite these difficulties, Chiang and the KMT consolidated their power and reported a number of achievemnents during Nanjing Decade. The KMT through negotiation managed to reduce the foreign concessions and privileges. A major achievement was the right to set tariffs (1930). Until then the major foreign powers had set Chinese tariffs. The KMT government pursued reforms and economic initiatives in many areas This included the legal and penal systems. Major highway and raiklway projcts were begun. An important step was legislation against the drug trade. Public health facilities were estanlished. Economic measures included price stabilization, amortizing foreign debts, and banking and currency reforms. The Govenment also promoted industrial and agricultural production. A key measure was the fiat currency (fapi) reform (November 3, 1935). This helped to stabilizing prices and also raisie government revenues. Major steps were taken in public education. Another measure was taken to unify Chinese society. The Government promoted Standard Mandarin language and reduce the influence of local spoken Chinese variats. Newspapers, magazines, and book publishing flourished as never before. Communications facilities began to tie China tigether as never before. The expanding railways helped to facilitate travel in China. This opened up countless villages to the outside world. The KMT pursued the Rural Reconstruction Movement. The KMT as part of its efforts to destoy the Communists restricted political freedom, The KMT pursued a policy of 'political tutelage' and reacted to anti-government protests with extrene violence.
The period between the KMT attack of the Communists and the Japanese invasion is often referred to as the Nanjing Decade--after the KMT capital (1928-37). The KMT nominally controled all of China. And Chiang significantly expanded the strength and authority of the centeral government. Even so, large areas of China were beyond his conrol.
Local warlords or warlord coalitions while nominally recognizing the KMT Governent were in effective control of large areas. Especially importabnt were Feng Yuxiang and Yan Xishan. The Japanese Kwantung Army was a major force in Manchuria and finally seized control (1931). The Communists also resisted repeated KMT attacks finally withdrawing to remote north-western China beyound the reachbof KNT armies. The KMT's control was strongest in the eastern regions of China around Nanjing. The Central Plains War (1930) and the Japanese seizure of Manchuria (1931) helped to strengthen Chiang's authority.
The Chinese famine of 1928�30 was centered in northern China. The provinces most affected were Henan, Shaanxi, and Gansu. The famine hit a large area of North China. Some 3-6 million people are believed to have died. Drought precipitated te famine. The war lords in control of the area made mtters worse. The Nationalist relief effort was ineffective. Involved in a Civil War with the Communists, the Nationlists imposed harsh taxes. The basic problem in China was that the large poplation forced peasants on to marginal land. But also because agricultural methods were so inefficent that peasants only produced slighly above subsistence levels. So droughts and floods could have terrible cosequences. And the same was true of political unpheaval in which contending armies could impose heavy leavies on the peasantry.
Japan had long desired to expand in East Asia. Its primary historic target, reflecting the geogrphy of East Asia, was Korea. Japan's ambitions were, however, limited by the tremenous power of China which for most of history dominated Korea and influenced client States. This changed with the Meiji Restoration anbd the development of Japan as an industrial power. The First Sino-Japanese war (1894) and Russo-Japanese war (1904-05) opened up East Asia to Japanese imperialism. Access to Manchuria was at first limited to the Liaodong Peninsula in the Yellow sea. The seizure of Korea (1909) and Japanese territoril expansion as a result of World War I, more fully opened up Mnchuria to Japanese expnsion. The Japanese Kwantung Army occupied Manchuria, a Chinese province, using as a pretext a faked incident on the main railroad (1931). Japan then decalared "Manchukuo" an independent state, setting up Pu Yi, the last Manchu Emperor of China as puppet Emperor (1932). Anti-Japanese disturbances broke out in Shanghai. The Japanese bombed the unprotected city to quell the disturbances. There was no effort to hit military targets. This was the first of many Japanese terror bombings of civilian populations. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations as a resulted of the criticism of her military operations in Manchuria and China (1933). The Japanese encouraged Japanese "colonizers" to emmigrate to Manchukuo, but few responded to the propaganda films depicting an Asian paradise. For the Chinese in Manchukuo, life became increasingly difficult. Chiang did not respond to the Japanese seizure of Manchuria. He recognized that his forces involved with fighting the Communists, did not have the capability of fighting the well-equipped Japanese. Rather he continued his series of pacification drives. Chiang insisted, 'pacification first, resistance later'. Popular opinion in China, however, became stridently anti-Japanese. Not only had the Japanese seized Manchuria, but military operations in Shanghai (1932), and the seizure of Jehol (1933). Boycott drives affected sales of Japanese goods, undercutting Japanese economic policy.
Perhaps the most volitile group in Chinese politics in the 20th century were students groups. This was a relatively new devlopment in China, but students would olay an important role in China throughout the 20th century, beginning with the overthrow of the Imperial Government (1912). This development began in the 19th century with the Opium Wars. The Imperial Government was shocked with the power of Western military forces and was forced into unequal treaties. Qing officials even cortiers had no choice but to face up to the need to modernize. Western ideas began to seep into China as a result of Western academics, missionaries, merchants, and foreign students studying abroad. Chinese scholars began translating Western books. A few Western-style schools were opened. Missionaries often played important roles. Initially under the direction of Chinese scholars, Chinese students began studying Western science and languages for the first time. Special schools were opened in the major cities. Students were sent abroad by the government. Wealthy families sent youth abroad to study. The First Sino-Japanese War (1894-95) further promoted this as China was further shocked by Japan's success of modernization. This resulted in the Hundred Days Reforms (June 11 to September 21, 1898). Qing Emperor Guangxu (1875-1908) ordered a series of reforms designed to lead sweeping social and institutional changes. The reforms were the work of progressive scholar-reformers who had concinced the Court of the urgency of modernization. One of the reforms was sending increased numbers of students abroad and expanding Chimese schools. The Boxer Rebellion and the failure of Imperial reforms convinced many Chinese that modernization required the overthrow of the Imperial Government. Despite growing anti-Japanese sentiment, many saw Japan as a model for China. It is at this time that Sun Yat-sen (1866-1925) emerged as a major figure. He was a republican and anti-Qing activist who became increasingly popular among the overseas Chinese and the growing number of Chinese students abroad, especially students in Japan. Sun founded the Tongmeng Hui (United League) in Tokyo (1905). Chang attended apanese military academy. Sun gradually gained great popularity, especially among students in China who played a role in the overthrow of the Imperial Government (1912). Japan seized Shandong Province from Germany at the onset of World War I (1914). The weak Chinese Government techically entered World War I by declaring war on Germany in an effort to regain Shangdong. The Chinese Government signed a secret treaty with Japan accepting the latter's claim to Shandong. The Paris Peace Conference confirmed the Japanese claim to Shandong and The Chinese Government's secret treaty was revealed (1919). The result was widespread demonstrations, often led by students. A massive student demonstrations against the Chinese Governmnt and Japan was staged in Beijing (May 4). The intense political fervor, student activism, and reformist intellectual currents set in motion May Fourth Movemnt--a kind of national awakening. This was all part of the New Culture Movement. Students returned from abroad and Chinese students in China were intensely nationalistic and advocated a wide range of social and political theories ranging from democracy to Fascism and various versions of socialism. Student thought was specially critical of Chang Kai-shek and the KMT for not resisting the Japanese seizure of Manchuria, not understanding the Japanese military prowess.
Many Chinese asked why Chiang was fighting the Communists rather than the Japanese. Chiang's generals were also unhappy with him. The Communists in late-1936 helped convince Kuomintang generals to take him hostage (late-1936). Eventually an anti-Japanese alliance was negotiated. Zhou Enlai played an important role.
Despite these difficulties, Chiang and the KMT consolidated their power and reported a number of achievemnents during Nanjing Decade. The KMT through negotiation managed to reduce the foreign concessions and privileges. A major achievement was the right to set tariffs (1930). Until then the major foreign powers had set Chinese tariffs. The KMT government pursued reforms and economic initiatives in many areas This included the legal and penal systems. Major highway and raiklway projcts were begun. An important step was legislation against the drug trade. Public health facilities were estanlished. Economic measures included price stabilization, amortizing foreign debts, and banking and currency reforms. The Govenment also promoted industrial and agricultural production. A key measure was the fiat currency (fapi) reform (November 3, 1935). This helped to stabilizing prices and also raisie government revenues. Major steps were taken in public education. Another measure was taken to unify Chinese society. The Government promoted Standard Mandarin language and reduce the influence of local spoken Chinese variats. Newspapers, magazines, and book publishing flourished as never before. Communications facilities began to tie China tigether as never before. The expanding railways helped to facilitate travel in China. This opened up countless villages to the outside world. The KMT pursued the Rural Reconstruction Movement.
China made some economic progress during this time, including industrial expansion. Unlike Japan, China had made little progress in industrualization and was still largely an agricultural society. Given the domestic threat from the Communists and the international threat from the Japanese wjo seized Manchuria (1931), the Government focused on industrial expansion on arms production, mostly small arms. Despite continuing civil war with the Communists and Japanese aggression (Manchuria), China experienced a decade of relative prosperity. The government began to stabilize tax collection, plan a national budget, and promote important construction and infrastructure projects, especially communications and railroads. The KMT conceived ambitious national plans. The Communists after their post-War victory, dismissed the KMT as corrupt and backward. Actually until the Japanese invasion, China was making economic progress. The country's market economy was operating and China was growing economically. [Chow] This ended with the Japanese invasion of China proper (1937).
The KMT as part of its efforts to destoy the Communists restricted political freedom, The KMT pursued a policy of 'political tutelage' and reacted to anti-government protests with extrene violence.
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