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World War I or the Great War as it was called at the time was a world-wide disaster, especially for Europe. Britain and the other European powers had lost a generation of young men. Unlike France and Belgium and several other European powers, there had been not substantial physical damage in either Britain and Germany. The country was, however, essentially bankrupt and the population traumatized. There was a nation-wide consensus that there should never again be such a war, although tragically the idea grew that the way to prevent another war was cutting military spending to the bone and blaming companies involved in building weaponry--the so-called 'merchants of death'. Britain could no longer afford a massive fleet and huge cuts occurred as a result of the Washington Naval Talks (1921-22). The fact that the War prevented German control of Europe was little appreciated. Nor did the creation of the Soviet Union raise any real concern among the public. The American Wall Street Crash (1929) hit Britain hard. Public finances were all ready stretched and military budgets were cut further. The Depression hit Germany even harder, leading to the rise of the NAZIs and Hitler's seizure of power (1933). The growing Labour Party whose influence grew with the Depression had a strong pacifist wing, some of which supported unilateral disarmament. In this environment, the Conservative Party did not dare offer a program of rearmament and forceful opposition to the NAZIs as a General Election approached (1935). Prime-Minister Baldwin's answer was the League of Nations and collective security along with appeasement which Chamberlain would also champion when he became prime-minister. While German World War I bombing did little real damage, the threat of aerial bombing loomed heavy on public thinking. Especially after the new Luftwaffe demonstrated what they could do in Spain (1936-39). This all climaxed with the Munich capitulation (1938). Prime-Minister Chamberlain was cheered when he returned from Munich and proclaimed, "Peace in our time." Only 6-months later, Hitler broke his word and invaded what was left of Czechoslovakia (1939). Now even Chamberlain and the British people could see that there was no negotiating with Hitler. Britain signed a treaty with Hitler's next target--Poland. Britain had a ally--France, but France was even more traumatized by the Great War than Britain. There was also the United States, but Americans were just as determined to stay out of another European war as the British had been. President Roosevelt was sympathetic, but faced the powerful Isolationist Movement.
Britain was the key country in the Great War. Germany was without doubt the most powerful continental power. Germany indutry combined with the professionalism of the Germany Army meant that it could defeat either France and Russia and even the two countries combined. But defeating an alliance including Britain proved to be too much for Germany. Had Germany prevailed in their initial offensive and defeated France, the War would have probably ended quickly. A protracted war of attrition, however, swung the advantage to the Allies because the powerful Royal Navy gave the Allies access to the resources of the Empire as well as neutrals like America. And it enabled the Allies the ability to blokade Germany, cutting it off from raw materials and food. The key conflict in World War I was the conflict between France and Germany which had historic roots but in modern terms began with Franco-Prussian War and the unification of Germany. Britain at times had sided with the German states when France was the dominant European power. Many historians believe that the British alliance with France (the Entant Cordial) was a foregone conclusion given the rise of Germany and the threat of German dominantion of the continent. This was of course intensified by Kaiser Wilhelm's decession to build a highseas fleet that could challenge the Royal Navy. British policy at the turn of the 20th century, however, seems curiously crafted to oppose German hegenomy. Certain the British were firmly committed to maintaining naval speriority which was demonstrated by the contruction of HMS Dreadnought and the even more powerfull battleships that followed. While the fleet could be used to protect the Empire, it could not be used to oppose the Germany Army. For this Britain needed a large conscript army. Probably for political and financial reasons this was not possible. As a result, when Germany invaded Belgium and France, the BEF which was rushed across the Channel was such a small force that the Germans almost reached Paris and won the War. After the War here were stories of World War I trench warfare and films about the conflict made by British motion picture companies as well as Hollywood. There was also a weekly magazine that built up into a World War I encyclopaedia. Britain had paid a terrible prie in blood and treasure for its victory. Gradually the public came to see the War as not only a terrible tragedy, but a mistake which never must be repeated again.
Britain had a big decision to make after World War I. Btitis policy was to have a navy superior the next two most imprtant navies. It was clear after theWar that it would be ruinous to try to compete from the econmically stronger United States. So Britaint acceped parity with the United States as part of the Washington Naval accords. Other countries like Fance, Italy, and Japan had to acept seconary status. Japan was given the largest tonnage after America and Britain. Briyain also did not renew is naval treaty with Japan tosolidify its posiion with America.
The British General election of 1035 was one of the most consequential of the 20th century. There would not be another for 10 years. The Conservatives would win an overwhelming victory, nearly 48 percent of the vote, giving them an 387 Members of Parliament (MPs), a huge majority. The opposition Labour Party had only 154 MPs and all the other parties only 63 MPs. This provided the Conservatives total control of national politics. It was a continuation of the National Government coalition, but a coalition totally controlled by the Conservatives. Unemployment and foreign policy were major issues in the election. The election was held late in the year (November 14). In many ways a by election held earlier determined the policies of the Conservative Party which won the election. Prime-minister Baldwin was shocked when Labour won a by-election in Fulham East, a safe Conservative constituency. Pacifism was clearly in the air. Labour turned a Conservative majority in the previous election into a 5,000 vote victory. It should be understood where Labour stood at the time. Labour would come to be an important cog in Churchill's struggle to confront the NAZIs, but that was not where Labour and the Liberals stood in 1935. Despite the massive NAZI Rearmament program--the Liberals and Labour were determined to cut defense spending. Many openly exposed disarmament. The Liberals were committed to disarmament full stop. Labour Leader George Lansbury actually advocated disbanding the Army and dismissing the Air Force and dare the world (meaning Germany), "Do your worst!". Of course that is precisely what Germany would do. At the Labour Party Conference (October 1933), Labour delegates voted in favor of total disarmament and a general strike in response to an actual war. The victorious Labour candidate in Fulkham East ran on unilateral disarmament and pacifism. 【Bouverie, p.25.】 In response Baldwin and the Conservatives ran the 1935 campaign based on a defense policy, not of matching the Germans but on basing British security on collective security and the League of Nations. Fulham East also convinced Baldwin and Chamberlain that the country would not stand for a massive rearmament program, because it was perceived as leading to another War. Thus appeasement was seen as being the only realistic alternative. Appeasement was supported by a large number of prominent Britons.
Neville Chamberlain as Chancellor of the Ex-checker helped formulate the Appeasement Policy with Prime-Minister Baldwin, Chamberlain became prime-minister (1937). He seems to have felt it had a chance of succeeding. And notably he did not think that Britain needed to match German rearmament. It was clear even earlier that Hitler's Germany was conducting a massive rearmament program. Even so, he thought it was sufficient and prudent to have a military that could harm Germany, thinking that this would be adequate deterrence. And he suppressed reports he was receiving of German rearmament, trying to keep from the British people the level of German rearmament. He apparently feared that his would make selling his appeasement policy more difficult. (He was surely right about that.)
After the Anschluss n Austria, NAZI propaganda began to focus on the German minority in Czechoslovakia, especially the Sudetenland. France but not Britain had treaty obligations with Czechoslovakia. The Czechs were prepared to fight. Chamberlain desperately wanted peace. He talked about how terrible it was that Britain should be drawn into war for a "far-away country and people we know little". Hitler promised Chamberlain "Peace in our times" if he was given the Sudetenland. The Allies (Britain and France) acquiesced and Czechoslovakia which was prepared to fight was dismembered. Churchill was appalled. Germany would not only gain the Sudetenland without firing a shot, but eventulayy the important Skoda arms complex. Amazingly Hitler after the Conference felt he had been cheated. He in fact wanted a victorious little war and the military laurels that went with it.
Hitler threatened the Czechs with military action on several occasions after Munich. Finally he called elderly President Dr. Emil Hacha to Berlin (March 14). There after midnight Hitler harangued him. Then Göring offered a mocked apology for having his bombers destroy Prague, but said it would be a good lesson to the British and French. Hacha fainted and had to be revived. He telephoned Prague ordering that there should be no resistance. Göring and Ribbentrop bullied him into signing a paper asking for German intervention. 【Black, p. 512.】 The Wehrmacht crossed the border and occupied Bohemia and Moravia in one day (March 15). This was a total violation of the Munich Agreement. Slovakia had succeeded the day before and became Hitler's most slavishly supportive puppet state. Hungary with Hitler's approval seized Ruthenia. All of Czechoslovakia was now in the NAZI orbit. The Czechs would pay a terrible price. They would, howevrr, be Hitler's last bloodless victory, but not his last stunning victory.
Hitler by adding the Czechs to his empire had crossed a line. He had repeatedly told Chamberlain, "We want no Czechs. He was now no longer uniting the Germans. Bohemia and Moravia were Czech lands. It was clear to the Allies that Hitler was prepared to make one demand after another. Although facing a rearmed Germany with an unrivaled air force, British and French leaders and increasingly the public in those countries realized that there was no choice, but to confront the NAZIs with military force. Even Chamberlain realized that this meant an end to appeasement. He delivered a speed in Birmingham March 17. Although he did not admit error, he described the commitments that Hitler had made in Munich and he expressed sympathy for the Czechs. What he did not do, however, was resign. Perhaps ever before in British history had a prime-minister who had failed so disastrously insisted on holding on to power. Britain did institute conscription, but under Chamberlain reluctantly prepared for war and with the same lack of determination that had marked his dealings with Hitler. At this stage the Allies needed an ally. America was not yet available. The Soviets were, but Chamberlain gave no priority to working out arrangements with Stalin. NAZI propaganda began to focus on the Polish Corridor so it was obvious that Poland was to be the next target. And in contrast to the Allies, Hitler moved decisively to make arrangements with Stalin. Chamberlain was right about one thing. If there was another war with Germany, the Soviets would benefit. Chamberlain put Britain and Western civilization in danger. He did accomplish one matter--something he was not trying to do. He took a country that was dead set against another war by a huge majority. Thanks to Hitler, Chamberlain's appeasement turned Britain into a country that recognized that they had no choice but to fight. Through the next 6 years, despite terrible defeats and the Blitz as well as severe rationing -- the British people steadfastly supported the war effort. There was at no time the slightest hint of anti-war feeling.
Black, Conrad. Franklin Roosevelt: Champion of Freedom (Public Affairs: New York, 2003), 1280p.
Bouverie, Tim. Appeasing Hitler: Chamberlain, Churchill and the Road to War (The Bidley Head: London, 2019), 497p.
Churchill, Winston S. Memoirs of the Second World War (New York: Bonanza, 1958), 1065p.
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