Figure 1.--Here we see Filipino students learning Japanese during the Pacific War occupation. The Japanese brought in teachers from the Home Islands, but Japanese soldiers also taught in the schools. Most of the teachers were Filipinos, but they were closely monitored. Click on the image to see the teacher.

As part of the American Commonwealth, the Philippines was one of the only countries in Asia that had a major public school system, extending even into rural areas. The only other country was Japan. And because of Japanese occupation, Taiwan and Korea. The Japanese landed on Luzon (December 12, 1041) almost immediately after the Pearl Harbor attack. The major invasion recurred (December 22). They entered Manila (January 2, 1942). The Philippines was a big place with many islands. We are not sure if the Japanese shut down the schools or the schools simply closed. The Japanese military took an immediate interest in the schools. Military Order No. 2 established the Philippine Executive Commission which created the Commission of Education, Health, and Public Welfare. As far as we can tell this was minor changes in existing institutions. A Ministry of Education was created (October 1943). The Japanese had completed the conquest of Luzon and other major ages and reopened the schools (June 1942). Many of the rural schools, however, did not reopen. The Japanese introduced a range of changes in the schools. They attempted to introduce Nihongo (Japanese) and prohibited English as the medium of instruction. This was very complicated as virtually no Filipino teachers spoke Japanese. The Japanese brought in teachers, but they could hardly replace all the teachers. We believe the teachers from Japan were primarily used in Japanese language classes. Prohibiting English was more difficult. We believe this was done by teaching in Tagalog. Not all Filipinos, however spoke Tagalog. So other Filipino languages were probably used. Textbooks were censored and revised. Given the cost and wartime conditions, we are not sure how this went. Presumably this meant books in Tagalog, but it would have been difficult to do books in all the languages needed. The Japanese decided to expand the school year and eliminate summer vacations. Class sizes were increased to reduce operating costs. Many schools had classes with 60 students. Obvious American influences were prohibited, such as songs, music, symbols, poems, and pictures. Rather Japanese culture was promoted. Again this was a problem as few of the teachers knew anything about Japanese culture. The Japanese language teachers presumably were involved here.

Background

As part of the American Commonwealth, the Philippines was one of the only countries in Asia that had a major public school system, extending even into rural areas. The only other country was Japan. And because of Japanese occupation, Taiwan and Korea.

Invasion (December 1941)

The Japanese landed on Luzon (December 12, 1041) almost immediately after the Pearl Harbor attack. The major invasion recurred (December 22). They entered Manila (January 2, 1942). The Philippines was a big place with many islands. We are not sure if the Japanese shut down the schools or the schools simply closed. Notably the invasion of the main island of Luzon occurred around Christmas, so many students were off in their Christmas vacation. So the the teachers and children may simply not have returned after Christmas.

Reopening

The Japanese military took an immediate interest in the schools. Military Order No. 2 established the Philippine Executive Commission which created the Commission of Education, Health, and Public Welfare. As far as we can tell this was minor changes in existing institutions. A Ministry of Education was created (October 1943). The Japanese had completed the conquest of Luzon and other major ages and reopened the schools (June 1942). Many of the rural schools, however, did not reopen.

Changes

The Japanese introduced a range of changes in the schools. The primary objectives were, "the inculcation of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere the elimination of Western influences the uplifting of Filipino morals the propagation of Japanese language the promotion of vocational courses and the encouragement to love labor." 【Lacambra, Puangco, and Sy.] The most obvious was the attempt to introduce Nihongo (Japanese) and prohibit English as the medium of instruction. There were also changes in the curriculum. Whole subjects were deleted from the curriculum or de-emphasized, especially the liberal arts. Others were added such as Japanese language and handicrafts. One source writes, "Neither Filipino youth or their parents responded positively to the new Japanese curriculum, but most who attended school were outwardly compliant."

Language

A major effort the Japnese made was to replace the English language. This was primarily conducted in the schools. This was very complicated as virtually no Filipino teachers spoke Japanese. The Japanese brought in teachers from the Hime islands. Mny were enthusiatic young women. There were also some Japanese priests and soldiers stationed in the Philippines. The Japanese could hardly replace all the Filipino teachers. many were excellent teachers, but some apparently demanded a level of discipline and concentration to which the students were unaccostomed. The Japanese teachers were almost all used in Japanese language classes. Prohibiting English was more difficult. We believe this was done by teaching in Tagalog. Not all Filipinos, however spoke Tagalog. So other Filipino languages were probably used. Textbooks were a real problem for the Japanese. Filipino schools used mmostly textbooks published in the United States. They were written in English and contained a lot of references to American figures and culture. Given the cost and wartime conditions, we are not sure how this went. The Japanese also promoted the use of Tagalog, but it would have been difficult to do books in all the languages needed. And it would have been difficult to print all new books. What the Japanese did was to have the teachers and students blot out or paste paper over offending passages, tear out whole pages, or in some cases paste pages together. We do not think large numbers of new school books were published because of the cost and economic conditions. Japanese economic policies caused a serious n economic contraction and food shortages.

Curriculum

There was a huge shift in the curriculum. We also see a better coverage of Filipino history (a rare improvement). But many subjects were cut out of the curriculum, mostly the social sciences, and literature. Instead school time was filled in with handicrafts or practice writing Japanese characters. One primary school student at the time writes, "I was in grade IV during the first major change in curriculum in history: All those pertaining to Americans were arbitrarily removed. We were given 'Katakana' [basic Japanese language characters] to study. Anything of western culture was taboo. Pre-war schooling was American oriented. During the Japanese period, it was what they called Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere or Asians for the Asians." 【CN 056, Lipa, Batangas -- Kuwentong Bayan】 A secondary school student remembers, "Most of my Ateneo classmates [Ateneo was a public secondary school that remained closed] transferred to La Salle, run by German brothers, and finished high school there. At least one went to Letran [which was] run by Spanish Dominicans. I was told they did not take hunanities subjects like history and literature, but concentrated on math, science and Nippongo (Japanese).' 【CN 072, Manila -- Kuwentong Bayan】 These were private schools and because they were operated by foreign nationals not at war with Japan, were allowed to continue operating. Apparently to make sure that they did not run afoul of the Japanese authorities, school simply dropped courses where issues might arise. Another report from a primary student tells us, "Our curriculum drastically changed. All subjects with reference to the United States such as geography, literature and history were dropped . Instead subjects on Japanese culture and language were substituted. 【CN 034, Pampanga, then Malate, Marilla】 Another former student explains what filled in the school day after so many subjects were no longer taught, "There were not enough subjects to keep us in school so a lot of subjects never before taught like macrame, water coloring, concepts of design, etc, were taught. 【CN 055, Rizal-- Kuwentong Bayan】

Other Changes

The Japanese decided to expand the school year and eliminate summer vacations. Class sizes were increased to reduce operating costs. Many schools had classes with 60 students. Obvious American influences were prohibited, such as songs, music, symbols, poems, and pictures. Rather Japanese culture was promoted. Again this was a problem as few of the teachers knew anything about Japanese culture. The Japanese language teachers presumably were involved here. Much greater attention was given to Japanese culture. We see a mention of 'character education', but are not sure what that meant. Democracy and other aspects of Western culture such as free speech and other civil liberties were removed from the curriculum. There was a promotion of the love for work and the dignity of labor. This of course does not sound bad. It is a theme we also see in Korea and Taiwan where the Japanese were the manager and technicians ans he Koreans and Taiwanese were the poorly paid workers. >br>

School Levels

The primary schools, vocational, and normal (teacher training) schools were reopened. We are not sure about secondary schools. Many public secondary schools were not reopened. The Japanese were more focused on changes in the universities. The curriculum was severely restricted. Courses continued to be offered on agriculture, medicine, fisheries, and engineering. Liberal arts courses were dropped. A university student reports, "During the war I spent one year in pre -med (UP) and two years in the UP [University of the Philippines] PGH School of Nursing. There were revisions to the curriculum. Nippongo [Japanese] was taught as a subject and we had to attend activities of the school on the national level- for example, tribute to the emperor,Japanese cultural and national events. The national anthem was changed, excerpts from books dealing with American history and nationalism were removed from textbooks, and subjects not relevant to "Co-Prosperity Sphere" were deleted. Radio Taishowas given in lieu of PE. Courses offered in UP were engineering, dentistry and pre-medicine only. 【CN 033, Mani--Kuwentong Bayan】 A person attending a vocational school writes, "As specified in Order No . 2, vocational education was emphasized: The boys in our class, Grade V, were taught handicraft, and one of our projects was making drinking glasses from old bottles. Elementary [primary] boys then were taught gardening and handicrafts ... we learned to make use of our time and create usable and serviceable [items] which elementary boys do not have/know at present." 【CN 071, Tiwi, Albay--Kuwentong Bayan】

Discipline

We have noted comments about the more strict discipline maintained by the Japanese teachers. One students mentioned that they could be slapped not only for misconduct, but for making a mistake. We do not know how common this was, but some students apparently stopped going to school because of it. Of course only a small number of the teachers were Japanese.

Attendance

We have no attendance data, but attendance clearly declined during the Japanese era. This is clear because of decisions taken by the Japanese. The great majority of students were primary schools. The decision not to reopen many rural schools much have reduced school attendance numbers. We are not certain why this was done, but was presumably a budgetary decision. But it would have been difficult to monitor large numbers of rural schools. We also note some secondary schools being closed as well as many academic disciplines at universities being cancelled all of this would have further reduced attendance. There are also reports of parents choosing to not send their children to the Japanese controlled schools. This probably increased as Japanese occupation became increasingly severe.

Censorship

The Japanese strictly censored textbooks and other teaching materials. Teachers were seen as uncritical mouthpieces for Japanese propaganda. We are not entirely sure how that was accomplished. But the teachers brought in from Japan were probably useful and we see soldiers assigned to the schools. We are not sure just what they were teaching, surely Japanese language. We are not sure if they were teaching other subjects, but they could monitor the Filipino teachers. The teachers who were more aware of what was happening and the character if the Japanese were terrified of doing anything that would upset the monitors in the schools. This was complicated by the fact that children would sometimes say something derogatory about the Japanese, especially the younger students who did not understand the danger. This task was made easier by the closure of many rural schools. But it mean that that the Japanese reach on young people was mostly confined to the cities and towns.

Six Basic Educational Principles

The Japanese educational effort in the Philippines was based on six basic principles. First, to promote the new order and friendly cooperative relations with Japan. Second, Promote changes in Filipino culture. Third, change cultural values especially perceived American materialism. Fourth, promote the use of the Japanese language. Fifth, promote vocational education and lessen the emphasis on liberal arts. Sixth, to inspire the spirit of loving one's neighbors. This is a little mystifying as it seems the opposite of Japanese behavior.

Filipino Reaction

The Filipino reaction to the Japanese was different than that ofv the Indonesians in the neighboring Dutch East Indies where the Dutch were unpopular. As far as we can tell, Filipino parents and the school children themselves generally remained loyal to the Americans and American democratic ideals. Few responded favorably to the Japanese or the changes that the Japanese made in the education system. One Filipino who was a student at the time during the Japanese in his personal memoir wrote, Filipinos were just too pro-American and accepted the American ideas that the Japanese efforts just did not go well. 【Gavino, p. 165.】 Some parents refused to send their children to the Japanese-oriented schools. We do not have any solid data as to how common his was. There are, however, personal accounts. Of course many rural schools were closed which restricted the Japanese reach. 【Agoncillo, p. 426.】 The Japanese did not manage to change the orientation of many Filipino school children. What they were told in school contrasted sharply with what they saw the Japanese doing all around them and what their parents told them. A Filipino recalls that 'school activities were as normal as they could be under the gun' and he describes how he and his friend expressed anti-Japanese sentiments in private. Another Filipino who was very young at the time, recalled making critical comments about the Japanese in innocently would talk this way suggests how wide-spread anti Japanese thinking was. Japanese ideas simply did not sell well in the Philippines. And of course the well being of the people under Japanese rule declined significantly. The Japanese era currency became known as 'Mickey Mouse' money. Actual Japanese behavior and brutality in the Philippines was probably much more important. While we have no actual data. the strength of the resistance movement and the reception of the Americans when they returned (1944-45) shows just how the Filipinos thought. The Japanese changes, however, cannot be entirely dismissed. One author writes that they "laid the foundation for a cultural and educational shift away from Western influences. The impact of these revisions would later influence the development of the Philippine educational system and shape the cultural identity of the nation." 【Camus】 Although this was surely the inevitable impact of independence after the War. Most Filipino teachers were understandably compliant given the monitors in the school. But one guerilla leader was a teacher who could not tolerate what the Japanese were doing--Nieves Fernandez. 【Limos】

Personal Accounts

we note some personal accounts that provide interesting looks at going to school during the Japanese era.

First grader

Here we see how a very young boy was seeing. "I was in grade one at the public school Pedro Guevarra Elementary on San Fernando street in Binondo when war broke out in December 1941. My elder sister was in grade 4. My youngest sister was not yet of school age. We resumed schooling in mid-1942, when shortly after I was accelerated to grade three and my sister to grade six. During all this time our studies were conducted under strict Japanese discipline . We were taught to speak and write Nippongo. Our medium of expression were both Nippongo and Tagalog. Although spoken English was totally discouraged, the English language could not be disregarded because the books we used were basically made and printed in the US; however, pages that depicted pictures of American personages like George Washington, Abraham Lincoln, or places or cities in the US were defaced, covered or pasted together so that the students would not see them. The intention was to keep the young minds from remembering and knowing about anything that concerned the Japanese enemy, if not erasing them completely. To a young mind all these changes were taken as strange and unusual. At least for me I could not understand what was happening and the usual inquisitive mind of a young boy could not be properly answered by a fearful teacher who gets stressed every time I say anything nasty about the Japanese. Of course, we craved for the better times we had before the war when everybody was free to say and do things without recrimination from the teachers who were always afraid of the Japanese monitoring them. For the first time in my life I learned the meaning of the word hate. 【CN 036, Baritan, Malabon, Bulacan, then Manila--Kuwentong Bayan】

High School Student

Here we have a view of an older student who understood better what was happening. "Schools were closed for about six months after war was declared. When they reopened, all the three children in my family except our younger sister continued their schooling. The younger siblings went to grade school. I completed my interrupted first year high and went on to second year at Centro Escolar University. My older brother studied in UP. We had to paste paper over all references to the USA in our textbooks. Tagalog, called the National Language, was added to the curriculum. At CEU it was taught by Paraluman Aspillera, daughter of the Tagalog grammarian Lope K. Santos. Nippon go was of course a required subject , and I enjoyed it because Japanese characters were fun to write. We had an amiable teacher named Miss Tsunasbima, who taught us how to sing the famous Japanese song Sakura, meaning cherry blossom. One day she called me aside and complimented me on my beautiful penmanship. She told other teachers that she planned to spend the vacation in Japan, and when my father heard of this, he laughed , 'She thinks she is going to live here permanently!' All schools were ordered to send student s to Luneta on certain weekends to participate in Japanese-style calisthenics called radiotaiso. Our high school principal, afraid of the authorities, required the girls to report to Luneta , so my mother put her foot down on this imperialist nonsense. So I never did radiotaiso. School activities were as normal as they could be under the gun. Students bowed before the sentries posted in nearby buildings occupied by Japanese, but my mother told me never to bow to them. Somehow I managed to look away when passing a sentry. We students expressed our anti-Japanese sentiments in private, never in the presence of our Filipino-Japanese friends. There were two of them in our class, daughters of a Filipina and a Japanese. One day a military truck driven by a good-looking American prisoner-of-war parked under a tree outside our schoolroom window while his Japanese passengers went off somew here. While the guard was not looking we waved furtively at the American and made the V for Victory sign from the window. He gave us a smile that made our day. 【CN 074, Manila--Kuwentong Bayan】

Sources

Agoncillo, Teodoro A. The Fateful Years: Japan's Adventure in the Philippines, 1941-45 (1965).

Camus, Michael. "The cultural and educational reforms in the Philippines (1946-1972)," Sinaunang Panahon January 21, 2024).

Gavino, Leonor. "Cruel in Defeat"” in Childhood Memories of a War-Torn Philippines Ely Javillonar Marquez and F. T. Marquez, eds. (Infinity Publishing, 2016).

Kintanar, Thelma B., Clemen C. Aquino, Patricia B. Arinto, and Ma Luisa T. Camagay, eds. Kuwentong Bayan: Noong Panahon Ng Hapon (Everyday Life in a Time of War). This is a compilation of Filipino personal narratives of World War II in the Philippines. It provides a good look at how the Japanese occupation forces changed the education system in the Philippines.

Lacambra, Leah, Ria Vita Puangco, and Sheryl Sy. "Philippine elementary and high school education during the Japanese occupation," animo repository (1996).

Limos, Mario, "The untold story of 'Miss Fernandez,' the school teacher who killed 200 Japanese in WWII," esquiremag.ph (September 15, 2020).

Created: 10:50 AM 6/4/2024
Last updated: 6:51 PM 6/5/2024