Figure 1.--These very fortunate Jewish refugee children, enroute to Philadelphia aboard the liner "President Harding", are waving at the Statue of Liberty in 1939. Notice that they are not so much waving as saluting. We are not sure about what hand salute they are using. We suspect that they are German Jewish children and that was how one saluted in Germany. (Actually at the time that same salute was used in many Ammerican schools.) Mrs. Roosevelt believed passionately in assisting refugees. The problem President Roosevelt faced was that he needed Congressional allies for his efforts to aid the Allies and then after the fall of France to save Britain. There was considerable Congressional opposition centered around the isolationist Republicans to aiding Britain and to rearm. Tragically there was also oppsition to raising immigration quotas to allow more refugees into America. The President's political assessment was that pushing to raise immigration quotas would threaten his efforts to aid Britain and rearm. Many of the President's important measures passed by very narrow Congressional margins.

Against thie background of war in Europe, President Roosevelt who did see the dangers from the NAZIs and Japanese militaists, with great skill and political courage managed to not only support Britain in its hour of maximum peril, but with considerable political skill managed to push through Congress measures that would lay the ground work for turning American into the Arsenal of Democracy, producing a tidal wave of equipment and supplies not only for the American military, but for our Allies as well in quantities that no one especially the AXIS believed possible. President Roosevelt saw American national interest differntly fom most Americans who determined to avoid involvement in another world war. From the onset of war in Europe, President Roosevelt set out to transform America from an isolationist neutral nation into a technically non-beligerant country waging an undeclared naval war in the North Atlantic.

Importance

President Roosevelt is generally considered one of the three greatest American presidents. There are many reasons for this, but the primary reason is his performance in the early years of Wprl;d War II before America entered the War. His leadership was especially extrodinary because he faced reelection violating the "no third term Principle set by Washington and appealing to an electorate that was against America's entry into the War. The new was afrom Europe was a steady stream of terrifying reports beginning with the NAZI Blitzkrieg in Poland (September 1939). Then the Soviets joined with the NAZIs in carving up Europe with not only its own invasion of Poland, but actions against Finland and the Baltics. Then the NAZIs invaded Denmark and Norway (April 1940). The most shocking news was the NAZI invasion of the Lowlands and the fall of France (May-June 1940). Italy joined Germany in the War (June 1940). The next minth the NAZI air assault on Britain began (July 1940). Even though this period was a steady stream od disasters, little noticed at the time was that against bitter resistance from the Isolationists and their mostly Republican allies, President Roosevely laid the foundation for eventual llied victory. Roosevelts policies included aseries of decisive actions: 1) the beginning of American rearmament, 2) The first steps toward the development of the atomic bomb, 3) the creation of a credible American army with the first peace-time draft, 4) the begininning steps toward forging an alliance with Britain, arguably the most importance alliance in history and 5) the conceptualization of Lend Lease. While the NAZI victories in Europe dominated the headlines. It was these actions by President Rodsevelt that would prove decisive in the War and key to the defeat of the dictators. Impressively these were steps that President Roosevelt was able to muster in the face of a public intent on avoiding war. No more astute use of the instruments of presidential power and leadership was ever achieved with the exception of President Lincoln.

1939

No Black-Out of Peace in America (September 3, 1939)

Britain and France on September 3 declared war on NAZI Germany in respnse to the NAZI invasion of Poland. That evening, President Roosevelt spoke to the nation in one of his Fire Side Chats. Americans frightened by development in Europe sat around their radio after dinner to hear the familiar voice of President Roosevelt, "My fellow Americans and my friends: Tonight my single duty is to speak to the whole of America. Until four-thirty this morning I had hoped against hope that some miracle would prevent a devastating war in Europe and bring to an end the invasion of Poland by Germany." It was clear that while America would be neutral, there was no suggestion that the beligerant powers were morally equal. He expressed outrage at aggression that would become increasingly strident as the NAZI tide spread over Europe. For the time being, however, peace was the dominany theme, "Some things we do know. Most of us in the United States believe in spiritual values. Most of us, regardless of what church we belong to, believe in the spirit of the New Testament�a great teaching which opposes itself to the use of force, of armed force, of marching armies and falling bombs. The overwhelming masses of our people seek peace�peace at home, and the kind of peace in other lands which will not jeopardize our peace at home." He pointed out that, "This nation will remain a neutral nation, but I cannot ask that every American remain neutral in thought as well. Even a neutral has a right to take account of facts. Even a neutral cannot be asked to close his mind to his conscience." Secretary Hull advised the President agains this last sentence, telling him that it would make it more difficult to convince Congress repeal the Neutrality Act and give amunition to the isolationists insisting that the President was trying to drag the country into the War. [Morgan, p. 512.] The President closed with an assurance that America would not enter another european war, "I have said not once, but many times, that I have seen war and that I hate war. I say that again and again. I hope the United States will keep out of this war. I believe that it will. And I give you assurance and reassurance that every effort of your Government will be directed toward that end. As long as it remains within my power to prevent, there will be no black-out of peace in the United States."

Neutrality Proclamation (September 5, 1939)

President Roosevelt on September 5, 2 days after the British and French declaration of war, issued the neutrality proclamation required by the Neutrality Acts. He then imposed an embargp on all arms sales to beligerant powers also as required by the Nutrality Acts. The delay was an effort to allow arms to be shipped th Canada ans Allied ships laoded with arms to leave American ports. He had hoped to delay the proclamation a few more days, but complaints fro isolationosts in Congress forced his hand.

Bi-partisan Foreign Policy

The New Deal effort during the 1930s to fight the Depression required a major shift in the role of the American Federal Government and policies toward social wlfare. This and the electoral success of President Roosevelt made him the most controversial president of the 20th century. The Republicans deeply resented the President's populrity and their inability to seriously comntest elections. The President saw from the onset of war in Europe that to confront the NAZIs and Japanese militarists that he wuld have to achieve a bi-partisan foreign policy--a major challenge for a president despised by the Republicans. Without bi-partidsan support, there could be hope of revising the Neutrality Acts. Republican support would also be needed for increased appropriations for rearmament. The President moved away from the social reforms of the New Deal and Congressional Republicanns slowly moved toward the President's foreign policy.

SS City of Flint (October 1939)

The Neutrality Laws did not prohbit trade between belligerent powers, only the trade in arms and munitions on board U.S. ships. Foreign countries could buy Americn arms and munitions on a 'cash and carry' basis and carried on foreign-flag ships. The German pocket battleship (heavy cruiser) Deutschland seized the American cargo ship City of Flint (October 9, 1939). We are not sure to what extent he was acting on his own with or without direction from the German Admiralty. It was the first American ship taken by the Germans. The ship was carrying a cargo of tractors, grain and fruit to Britain. The German captain declared the cargo to be contraband and the ship a prize of war. The Captain put a German prize crew board the ship to sail the capture ship her back to Germany. [Cressman, "October 9, 1939".] The problem for the Germans was that the Royal Navy was likedly to intercept the captured vessel if they tried to sailit back to Germany. What followed was a months long odessy while the City of Flint was shuffled back betweem Norwegian and the Soviet port of Murmansk. While the Soviet Union was a NAZI ally at the time, the Soviets refused to cooperate with the Germans. They allowed Captain Gainard, who was an inactive United States Naval Reserve officer, to communicate with United States Embassy officials. [Cressman, "October 28, 1939".] The Norwegians upset with the German sinking of the their merchnt ship SS Lorentz W. Hansen, the first of many, became increasingly uncoopertive. Finally using military force, the Norwegians required the Germans to turn the ship back to its American crew and interned the German prize crew (November 6). Cpt. Gainard unloaded his cargo in Bergen and sailed back to America. The City of Flint would ultimately be a caualty of the Battle of the Atlantic. It was sunk by U-575 (January 23, 1943)

Reregistration of American Merchantmen

As a result of the City of Flint incident, the United States Government began encouraging U.S. merchant ships to register under other countries. This would allow them to continue supporting the Allies without violating U.S. neutrality. The Roosevelt administration had begun to seek Congressional action to revoke the Neutrality Acts, but this would take some time. Isolationists had a great deal of support in Congress and they strongly supported the Neutrality Acts. Beligerents could pourchase arms in America on a 'cash nd cary basis. This reflagged American vessels could carry arms to the Allies.

Atomic Bomb Project (October 1939)

American work on an atomic bomb was initiated by President Roosevelt when work done by German physicists led to concern that the NAZIs might build an atomic bomb. Important scientists in 1939 concluded that German scientists had begun to develop an atomic bomb for the NAZIs. Of course the very idea of an atomic bomb was unknown to not only the general public, but even American political and militay officials. Szilard was politically astute enough to know that a group of little known foreign scientists with accents trying to convince America to spend billions of dollars on a project semingly out of Buck Rogers would have little chance of receiving a serious hearing. So Szilard had Teller drive him to see Einstein who agreed to sign a letter to President Roosevelt. Einstein had a reputaion that could not be dismissed. And Hitler's invasion of Poland had convinced the President that strong American action was neded. In this atmosphere, these scientists enduced President Roosevelt to create an "Advisory Committee on Uranium"--the precursor to the American atomic bomb project.

Declaration of Panama (October 1939)

The President on October 3, 1939, issued the Declaration of Panama establishing a 300-mile Security Zone around the Western Hemisphere (October 1939). While American public opinion was leary of steps perceived as moving toward involvement in Europe, issues of hemispheric security were preceived differently, allowing the president to take much more aggressive syeps in this area.

Revision of the Neutrality Act (November 1939)

President Roosevely when war broke out in Europe (September 1939) requested that Congress ease the arms embargo required by the Neutrality Act so that war material could be sold to the democracies (Britain and France) opposing Hitler. The debate over the repeal of the embargo provissions of the Neutrality Act was one of the most bitter since the gret debates over slavery in the 19th century. Roosevelt charged that the words of isolationists like Borah, Johnson, and Fish were being reported on the font pages of the NAZI press. Borah charged, "Our boys would follow our guns into the trenches." [Freidel, p. 323.] After the debate and arm twisting by Roosevelt, the embargo provision was repealed by a new Neutrality Act signed by the President on November 4, 1939. The Neutrality Act still had severe limitations. The Act permitted belligerents to purchase materials of war on a strictly cash and carry basis, but prohibited credit and banned American merchant ships from travelling in war zones designated by the President. Although worded neutrally, "cash and carry" at the time favored Britain and France. Their financial resources and control of the seas enabled them to buy war materials in the United States and transport them in their own ships. It was a marked a shift from isoloation to pro-Allied neutrality and extrenely dangerous politically for FDR withan election only a year away. The conditions were very strict, were to be no U.S. ships in war zone around British Isles, no loans to belligerents, no travel on belligerent ships, and no armed merchant ships. This was the best FDR could do for the Allies at the time. At least arms and munitions as well as other supplies could now be provided the Allies. Hitler hoped that the allies could be defeated before American supplies could make a difference. Here Hitler almost proved right.

Chinese Loans (1939)

A $25 million loan in 1939 allowed the beleagered Chinese Nationalists to buy American planes for the Chinese Air Force. Since the invasion of China in 1937, the Japanese had been using terror bombings of unprotected Chinese cities as a major part of their war effort.

1940

Hitler and Stalin launched World War II by invading Poland (September 1939). The Germans invased first. And their military campaign while not exactly text book was stunning. The substantial Polish Armyh was largely defeated in 2 weeks. The Siviet invasion was largely ignored. It was the first time Blitzkrieg was on display. Militart experts, however, did not take it seriously assuminhg that it was a matter of an ineffectual Polish Army. Most were convinced that the same could not occur in the West with the French Army. The French Army had been the Allies bulwark in World War I and this time they did not just have rudimentary trnches but were supported by the modern Maginot Line. The difference of course was that in World War I, Russia was allied with France. This time the Soviet Union was allied with NAZI Germany. President Roosevelt still hoped that the Allies could prevail with just American material support. The Allies expected a German assault in the West, but believed they could hold. The German assault when it came shocked the world (June 1940). France collapsed even faster than the Poles. German armies parading through Paris began a major reset of American thinking. While it essebtially gave the NAZIs control of Europe, President Roosevelt was able to obtain Congressioinal approval for major programs to aid Britain. Americans continue to be steadfast in opposing entering the War, but a major shift in pubkic opinion began. More Americans although still a minority saw the need for American participation. And a majority saw the need to for major increases in the U.S. Army American military which at the time was both tiny and lackling modern arms. There was alsos upport for a major naval expansion. President Roosevelt carefully crafted his early steps as a way of strenthening Amnerican defenses and not to participate in a European war. He stil had to contend with a powerful Isolationist Movement led by popular figures like Charles Lindburg. With France lost, all eyes turned to Britain. Some argued including many American military commanders that Britain could not survive and aid the Britain wiuls only fall into NAZI hands. The President un contrast believed, and was absolutely correct, that Britain surviuval as vital to America's defense. Immediately after the Fall of Franbce, threw the Luftwaffe at Britin. American listen to Prime-

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Created: January 1, 2003
Last updated: 4:21 PM 11/21/2021