*
Japanese schools: Historical trends -- 20th century First Showa era
Figure 1.--The foreign inluences on the the rising Japanese Empire can be seen in the school uniforms. selected. The boys wore Prussian cadet uniforms. The girls wore British sailor outfits. The British influence was largely limited to the Navy. The Prussian influemce besides the Army had a significant impact on the governmental structure, education, and other aspects of Japanese society. The future Prime Minister Tojo was posted to Germany after World War I and he was very impressed with what he observed. The rather determiuned boys here look to be oin a hike. All exscept one have their school bacjpacks, but only half have the regulation canteens.
Japanese Historical School Trends: The 20th Century--First Showa Era (1926-45)
Emperor Hirohito rose to the throne (1926). He was a still young man, although not nearly as young as the Emperor Meiji, 25 years old. No one know what his thoughts were about the rising militarism. It is likely that he shared many beliefs with them, although not as anxiious to go to war. It may also be that he and his advisers understood that it was dangerous to confront the military. Probably a little of both. No one really knows his true thinking on this. Japan continued to expand the schools and university system during the early Showa Era -- until the War began to go wrong for Japan. More students were continuing their education in secondary and other post-primary schools. About 20 percent of male students continued on to five-year secondary boys’ schools and more than 15 percent of female students continued on to five-year secondary girls’ schools. There they were taught hiw to become 'good wives and wise mothers'. [Aramaki, p. 116.] The discrepancy between urban and rural educational was still substantial. City children were much more likely to continue their education to secondary schools. In Nagoya City, over 55 percent of male students and 50 percent of female students went on to five-year secondary schools (by 1925). And social class affect acacademic performance. Among the graduates of one Tokyo primary school in 1936, for example, students from the middle class were more likely to have better grades and go on to 5-year secondary schools than students from the families of urban workers, farmers, and shop keepers, who were more likely to have lesser academic schievement and enroll in higher elementary schools or join the work force. Low family incomr forced many primary school graduates to entervthe work force rather than continue their education. [Okado, p.42, and 126-148.] It is during the Showa Era that the militarists seized control of Japan. Gradually at first but ultimately running the country during the World War II era. This was the general direction of Japanese politics. The Army behan military training in the secondary schools for male students (1926). This was also implemented in the training centers (1927). These centers offered some older teenagers (age 16-20 years). The program was some 800 hours of instruction, including 400 hours of military training. The other course work included 100 hours of ethics and civics (meabing hyoer nationlist instruction), 200 hours of academic subjects, and 100 hours of vocational subjects. The Army nrgan attacjing public military training centers to elementary schools or supplementary vocational schools. This meant instructing elementary school teachers, supplementary vocational teachers, and military reservists in military training. Those who completed the course in youth military training centers abd boys who received military training in secondary schools, were exempted from 6 months of military service. At the begining of this effort there were nearly 16,000 centers. And they trained some 900,000 students. This level of instruction continued through 1934. [Takano 1992:76-77, 81, 83). ~ In 1935, youth military training centers and supplementary vocational schools were integrated into youth schools. After 1938, all young working men were required to enter youth schools. Youth schools had two-year general courses for those who did not attend higher elementary schools, and four- to five-year courses for those who graduated from higher elementary schools. The 5-year courses for men included 350 hours of military training, 100 hours for ethics and civics, and 510 hours for general and vocational subjects. For female students, two-year general courses were offered to those who did not go to higher elementary schools, and two- or three-year courses were offered to those who graduated from higher elementary schools. [Takano, pp. 135-40 and 162.] The Wall Street Crash in America and resulting Depression had a huge impact on Japan. The country like Gernany was deeply dependant on foreign export markets and as a result of the Depression these began to dry up. This intensified existing attitudes, especuially the need to have more colonies. with raw materials and guaranted markets. Here the focus was on China which offered both. Japanese military action began with the seizure of Manchuria (1931). The Army subsequently changed the youth military training centers and supplementary vocational schools. They were integrated into youth schools (1935). The invasion of China increased manpower needs. Employed youths were required to enter youth schools. Youth schools had a 2-year general course program for thise who did not attend higher primary schools. There was a 4-5 year program for youths who had graduated from higher elementary schools. The 5-year program was for males and included 350 hours of military training, 100 hours for ethics and civics, and 510 hours for general and vocational subjects. For females there was a 2-year program for those who had attended higher elementary schools, and 2- or 3-year courses for those who graduated from higher elementary schools. [Takano. pp. 135-40 and 162.] As Japan was gearing up for war, the primary schools were renamed 'National People's Schools' (1941). The Army coordinated military wartime training as well as related academic instruction. The children were taught to be dedicated subjects of the emperor and that it was their duty to fight the war for the emperor. National textbooks repeated these themes, especially history texts and what the Japanese called ethics. The emperor was deified and Imperial Army and Navy presented as the glorified embodiment of the Japanese nation. An example is the the History Textbook for primary schools described the legend of the creation of the Japanese nation by the Sun Goddess, and the first Emperor Jinmu. [Harada and Tokuyama, p. 111.] Another example was the National History for primary schools (1940). It refers to Emperor Hirohito as a 'Living God'. This imperial worship and mniliitary glorification continued until the end of World War II. [Ishikida] Gen. Hidekki Tojo became prime-minister (1941). And he appointed military men to head the various ministries, completing military control of Japan. They expanded their reach over Japanese society. The military was already deeply inbedded in Japan's education system. Teaching in the school transitioned from ultra-nationalism to xenephobia. Military training increased in the schools. Even primary school children, includung the girls were taught combat skills. Ultimately the schools had to close. The older boys were drafted. The older girls and middle aged boys were sent into the factories to sustain war production. The youngrer children were sent into the countryside to escape the American bombing. And as the Americans began preparing to invade, the Ketsugo Program intensified combat training. This of course came to an abrupt end with the Anerican victory in the Pacific War (August 1945). The Showa Era continued, but with dramtically different policies and major reforms, including school reforms.
The 1920s (1926-29)
Emperor Hirohito rose to the throne (1926). He was a still young man, although not nearly as young as the Emperor Meiji, 25 years old. No one know what his thoughts were about the rising militarism. It is likely that he shared many beliefs with them, although not as anxiious to go to war. It may also be that he and his advisers understood that it was dangerous to confront the military. Probably a little of both. No one really knows his true thinking on this. Japan continued to expand the schools and university system during the early Showa Era -- until the War began to go wrong for Japan. More students were continuing their education in secondary and other post-primary schools. About 20 percent of male students continued on to five-year secondary boys’ schools and more than 15 percent of female students continued on to five-year secondary girls’ schools. There they were taught hiw to become 'good wives and wise mothers'. [Aramaki, p. 116.] The discrepancy between urban and rural educational was still substantial. City children were much more likely to continue their education to secondary schools. In Nagoya City, over 55 percent of male students and 50 percent of female students went on to five-year secondary schools (by 1925). And social class affect acacademic performance. Among the graduates of one Tokyo primary school in 1936, for example, students from the middle class were more likely to have better grades and go on to 5-year secondary schools than students from the families of urban workers, farmers, and shop keepers, who were more likely to have lesser academic schievement and enroll in higher elementary schools or join the work force. Low family incomr forced many primary school graduates to enter the work force rather than continue their education. [Okado, p.42, and 126-148.] It is during the Showa Era that the militarists seized control of Japan. Gradually at first but ultimately running the country during the World War II era. This was the general direction of Japanese politics. The Army behan military training in the secondary schools for male students (1926). This was also implemented in the training centers (1927). These centers offered some older teenagers (age 16-20 years). The program was some 800 hours of instruction, including 400 hours of military training. The other course work included 100 hours of ethics and civics (meabing hyoer nationlist instruction), 200 hours of academic subjects, and 100 hours of vocational subjects. The Army nrgan attacjing public military training centers to elementary schools or supplementary vocational schools. This meant instructing elementary school teachers, supplementary vocational teachers, and military reservists in military training. Those who completed the course in youth military training centers and boys who received military training in secondary schools, were exempted from 6 months of military service. At the begining of this effort there were nearly 16,000 centers. And they trained some 900,000 students.
The 1930s
The level of students at the youth centers continued through 1934. [Takano 1992:76-77, 81, 83.] These were facilitoes for the huge number of youths whon did not enter secondary school after completing primary school. Youth military training centers and supplementary vocational schools were integrated into youth schools (1935). After 1938, all young working men were required to enter youth schools. Youth schools had two-year general courses for those who did not attend higher elementary schools, and 4-to 5-year courses for those who graduated from higher elementary schools. The 5-year courses for men included 350 hours of military training, 100 hours for ethics and civics, and 510 hours for general and vocational subjects. For female students, two-year general courses were offered to those who did not go to higher elementary schools, and two- or three-year courses were offered to those who graduated from higher elementary schools. [Takano, pp. 135-40 and 162.] The Wall Street Crash in America and resulting Depression had a huge impact on Japan. The country like Gernany was deeply dependant on foreign export markets and as a result of the Depression these began to dry up. This intensified existing attitudes, especially the need to have more colonies. with raw materials and guaranted markets. Here the focus was on China which offered both. Japanese military action began with the seizure of Manchuria (1931). The Army subsequently changed the youth military training centers and supplementary vocational schools. They were integrated into youth schools (1935). The invasion of China increased manpower needs. Employed youths were required to enter youth schools. Youth schools had a 2-year general course program for thise who did not attend higher primary schools. There was a 4-5 year program for youths who had graduated from higher elementary schools. The 5-year program was for males and included 350 hours of military training, 100 hours for ethics and civics, and 510 hours for general and vocational subjects. For females there was a 2-year program for those who had attended higher elementary schools, and 2- or 3-year courses for those who graduated from higher elementary schools. [Takano. pp. 135-40 and 162.] As Japan was gearing up for war, the primary schools were renamed 'National People's Schools' (1941). The Army coordinated military wartime training as well as related academic instruction. The children were taught to be dedicated subjects of the emperor and that it was their duty to fight the war for the emperor. National textbooks repeated these themes over and over, especially history texts and what the Japanese called ethics. The emperor was deified and Imperial Army and Navy presented as the glorified embodiment of the Japanese nation. An example is the the History Textbook for primary schools described the legend of the creation of the Japanese nation by the Sun Goddess, and the first Emperor Jinmu. [Harada and Tokuyama, p. 111.] Another example was the National History for primary schools (1940). It refers to Emperor Hirohito as a 'Living God'. This imperial worship and mniliitary glorification continued until the end of World War II. [Ishikida]
Gen. Hidekki Tojo became prime-minister (1941). And he appointed military men to head the various ministries, completing military control of Japan. They expanded their reach over Japanese society. The military was already deeply inbedded in Japan's education system. Teaching in the school transitioned from ultra-nationalism to xenephobia. Throughout the War, reverence toward the emperor continued to be stressed in the schools. We see that dramatically in school text books. The Nation's History for Primary School in the first chaptern ('Country of Gods') instructs students “We have to study hard … to become good subjects, and to do our best for the sake of the Emperor.” [Ishikawa, p. 104.] The ethics textbook for second graders described Japan as 'Japan, the Good Country, the Beautiful Country. The only Country in the World, the Country of God'. [Tokutake, pp. 33-34.]
Even primary school children, includung the girls were taught combat skills. Tapping young people fior war work was not uncommon for war work. Preparing them gor combat was. This was dine to an extent by the Germans, but no wghere near the scake that the Japanese were preparing. Military training increased in the schools and began to involve younger and younger children. And as part of that training including the never surrender princiole. This had begun with the outbreak of the war. Japan's Little Soldiers were taught to believe that their Emperor was a Living God, and to die for the Emperor and the country was both an honor and a duty. There were differences from school to school, staffs competed to see who were the emoperor's most loyal subjects. For example, at the Ueda National School announced 'must-win education' (1944). The children had to memorize not only the 'Declaration of War', but also 'The Rescript on Imperial Soldiers'. Children not only were given military training but were organized to assist community organizations in war related projects. Schools emphasized the no surrender principle. They recited "Do not take the humiliation of being prisoners of war. You should rather die to avoid the humiliation of being prisoners of war…" This was part of the "Instruction on War" given to soldietrs. [Toda, pp. 163-168, 170-17).] Military training intensified after the American seizure of the Marianas Islands which included Saipan which had a Japanese civilian popualtion (July 1944). Until this, the military had been hiding the awful truth--Japan was not only losing the War, but new American heavy bombers, not the medium bombers that hit Tokyo in 1942, were now within range of the Home Islands. And thus greater exortations were needed. And this including preparing the children to fight the Americans. Prime-Minister Tojo had to resign. But the military men who replaced him changed nothing, except to preapre plans to repel the now inevitable American invasion--and the children were to be preapred to fight it out. The boys in higher elementary schools were given 2 hours of compulsory military training a week (1944). But military training was now not limited to just the boys. All students in 3rd-6th grades (ages 8-13 years) were given 'special classes' for military training supervised by the Army.
Ultimately after decades of creating an effective education systemn and steadily expanding it, Japan had to close their impressive creation--they had to close the schools. The older boys were drafted into the military. The older girls were and middle aged boys were sent into the factories to sustain war production. The younger children were sent lnto the countryside with their teachers to escape the American bombing.
And as the Americans began preparing to invade, the Ketsugo Program intensified combat trainung. This of course came to an abrupt end with the American victory in the Pacific War (1945). The Showa Era continued, but with dramtically different policies and major reforms, including school reforms.
Sources
Aramaki, Sōhei. 2000. “Kyōiku Kikai no Kakusa wa Shukushō Shitaka: Kyōikukankyō no Henka to Shusshin Kaisōkan Kakusa” in Hiroyuki Kondō, ed. Sengo Nihon no Kyōiku Shakai (Tokyo: Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai, 2000), pp. 15-35.
Ishikida, Miki Y. Japanese Education in the 21st Century (Universe: June 2005).
Harada, Taneo and Masato Tokuyama. Eds. Shogakkō ni Miru Senzen Sengo no Kyōkasho Hikaku (Tokyo: Gyōsei, 1988).
Okado, Masakatsu. Minshū no Kyōiku Keiken (Tokyo: Aoki Shoten, 2000).
