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Japanese schools: Historical trends -- 20th century
Figure 1.--Japan after the Meiji Restoration (1868) launched many reforms designed to create amodern nation, including creating a modern education system. The highest priority was building a modern military given that the primary motivation for the Meiji restoration was to prevent the Western powers from carving up Japan as they were dismembering China. The result was anything but defensive. Japan launched a series of wars and agressions as soon as they had built a modern army and navy. This began with China (1894). It continued with Russia (1905), Korea (1909), Germany/Austria (1914).Siviet Uniin (1918), China-Manchuria (1931), and China proper (1937), and Soviet Unioin (1939), and Indo-China (1940). Except for the Soviet incursiion, all were success. Finally Japan attacked the attack on Pearl Harbor and launched the Pacufic War. Here Japanese school children are mobilized to celebrate the early Pacific War successes.
Japanese Schools: Historical Trends--The 20th Century
Free compulsory education was introduced in 1900, and in 1908 it was extended to a period of 6 years. Our information on school clothing and uniforms during the early 20th century is still very limited. Japan in the 1920s began to be increasingly dominated by the military. We are not yet sure to what extent this was reflected in school uniforms. After the turn of the century we see boys at some primary schools repacing knee pants with longish shorts and long stockings with knee socks. There appear to be substantial differences between rural and urban schools. We are unsure to what extent schools had dress codes and uniforms. These clothing changes may simply reflect overall fashion shifts. Japan after World War II intoduced compulsory education in 1947. School is compulsory for a 9-year period, beginning at the age of six. Fashions changed after the war for primary school children. Many primary schools dropped uniform rquirements and those that did, with only a few exceptions, introduced civilian styles. Almost all primary schools adopting uniforms adopted short pants uniforms, usually with quite short shorts. Although Japan had been defeated and occupied by the Americans, Japanese mothers and school administrators appra to have turned to Europe, seemingly France or Italy for inspiration in boys' fashions. Junior high schools were created as part of the educational reforms. Many but not all adopted military styled Major changes occureed during this relatively brief period. Some primary schools dropped the uniform requirement. Many primary schools which retained uniforms adopted the longer style of short pants, although some schools still retained the short shorts. A few schools have retained the more traditional shorter short pants. This is especially common at private schools. Boys at schools without uniforms commonly wore shorts in the warmer months--mostly long baggy shorts. Most boys at these schools wore long pants in the winter. While most primary schools do not have uniforms, almost all junior and senior high schools do require uniforms. HBC has less information on junior high schools, but a few senior high schools dispensed with the military uniform styles and adopted a new English-style blazer and slacks.
The Meiji Era began with the defeat of the Shogunate (1868-69). The Neiji Restoratiin with a wude range of reforns designbed to make Japan a major power. Among them were a new Educatuin Law (1872) which resulted in the creation of a European style education system which was then exapnded throuhout the rest of the century. This was what Japan had by the turn of the century craeted Asia's first public school systemn as well as founding a university system. The system cointinued to expand school enrollmebt during the 1900s decade. The Japanrse school system becane highly centralized and priomoted both hyper-nationalism and emperor worship. Each school had a shruine.altar with a portait of the emoetorc abnd emoeress. It becane the centerpice of school ceremonies. The Ministry of Education emphasized the imperial view of history through nationalized textbooks in all primary schools (1904). This was not controversial at the time., In modern Japan, school textbooks, esopecially history textbooks, are a reoccuyrung issue. The primary issue is treatnent of World War II, often depicting Japan as a victim. The Meiji educational system was well deveoped and in place (1890s). It would be sugnificantly expanded suring the early-20th century, but not fundamebtalkly changed until Japan's disasterous defeat in Workd Wwar II (1945).
The Taishō Era is the period in Japanese history during the reign of the Emperor Taishō (大正) (1912-26). Taishō in sharp contrast to his father was a sickly man. Meiji did not play a role in the Meijo=i Restoration, but did play a major role in goverment after he reached adulthood. Taishō in contrast did not play a role in government. This resulted in a shifting power balance away from the Imoerial Palace and the old oligarchic group of elder statesmen (or genrō) aroiund the Emepror. The Imperial Diet (parliament) and the democratic parties emerged as the major force. This era was one of mixed
currents. Successful miiitary campsigns in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) stirred the natlonalist spirit, reinforcing the imperial and nationalistic ideology of the Meiji era. We see the Army ninvolved in Japanese schools as early as World War I. It was probably involved eralier, but we do not yet have any conformation of this. At the same time, it was Japan's liberal era -- Taishō Democracy. The Goverment continued to expand the school system. The enrollment rates in elementary continued to increase and we began to real almost all of the school agevpopulation, we see very substanyial numbers of girls in the primary schools as well as more children from the pooer classes. [Okado, p. 234.] Secondary enrollmenbts wew also increasing. Ober 10 perceny=gt of males and 5 percent of girls (1915). [Aramaki, p. 16.] Enrollment in the vocational schools exceeded 1 million students (1923). This was an option after primary school. Mostly boys attended these schools, but by thus time neraly 30 percenbt were girls. [Takano] Some 2 percent of male students and a minimal number of female students went on to post-secondary education (by 1915). [Aramaki, p. 16.] The percentage of male students was not out of line with Western numbrrs, but the girls nunvers were still very low. The College Ordinance of 1918, the status of 'university' was granted to many other national, prefectural, municipal, and private professional educational institutions. These schools were able to gain the prestigious university status if they added preparatory courses for secondary education. [(Osaki, pp. 36-37.] Options for higher education continued to expand and more and more students were taking vadvantage of these opportunities. One option was 3-year professional schools. There were 3-year preparatory high schools and three-year colleges. Another option was 3-year preparatory high schools and 3-4 year Imperial universities. As by the 1930s, the Japanese enrollment rate in higher education had risen to about 6 percent for males and about 1 percent for women. [Aramaki, p. 17.] Thete were progressive educators advocating child-centered education for middle class children. Thus was modtly in the cities. [Okado. pp. 144-55.] Economomic conditions were favorable in the Roaring Twenties. This was in part due to the American market which was a growing market for Japanese exoorts. Unfortunately for Japan and Asia, the parlimetarians came into conflict with the military establishment which was deermined to create a substantial modern military. This was an expemsive undertaking, A liberal outlook is perhaps an overstatement for the parlimentarians, after all they continued efforts to expand into China--issuing the Twenty-one Demands. But many were unwilling to bankrupt the nation in the drive to create a modern military that could confront the Western powers, especially the United States which had a vastly larger industrial economy. The military considered this tanamount to treason. And the practice of assassinating political fi=gures became a common practice. There were no major changes in the Meiji education system, but the steady expamdiion of the system continued, inckuding the university system.
Emperor Hirohito rose to the throne (1926). He was a still young man, although not nearly as young as the Emoerir Meiji, 25 years old. No one know what his thoughts were about the rusing militarism. It is likely that he shared many beliefs with them, although not as anxiious to go to war. It may also be that he and his advisers understood that it was dangerous to confront the military. Probably a little of both. No one really knows his trye thinking on this. Japan continued to expand the schools and university system during the early Showa Era -- until the War began to go wrong for Japan. More students were continuing their educationn in secondaty and other post-primary schools. About 20 percent of male students continued on to five-year secondary boys’ schools and more than 15 percent of female students continued on to five-year secondary girls’ schools. There they were taught hiw to become 'good wives and wise mothers'. [Aramaki, p. 116.] The discrepancy between urban and rural educational was still substbtial. City chikdren were much more likely to continue their education ro secondary schools. In Nagoya City, over 55 percent of male students and 50 percent of female students went on to five-year secondary schools (by 1925). And social class affect acacademic performance. Among the graduates of one Tokyo primary school in 1936, for example, students from the middle class were more likely to have better grades and go on to 5-year secondary schools than students from the families of ueban workers, farmers, and shop keeperss, who were more likely to have lesser academic schievement and enroll in higher elementary schools or join the work force. Low family incomr forced many primary school graduates to entervthe work force rather than continue their education. [Okado, p.42, and 126-148.] It is during the Showa Era that the militarists seized control of Japan. Gradually at first at ultimately running the country during the World War II era. This was the general directiin of Japanese politics. The Army behan military training in the secondary schools for male students (1926). This was also implemented in the youth trainhg centers (1927). These cenbters offered some older teenagers (age 16-20 years). The oprogram was some 800 hours of instructioin, including 400 hours of military training. The other course work included 100 hours of ethics and civics (meabing hyoer nationlist instruction), 200 hours of academic subjects, and 100 hours of vocational subjects. The Army nrgan attacjing public military training centers to elementary schools or supplementary vocational schools. This meant instructing elementary school teachers, supplementary vocational teachers, and military reservists in military training. Those who completed the course in youth military training centers abd boys who received military training in secondary schools, were exempted from six months of military service. At the begining of this effort there were nearly 16,000 centers. And they trained some 900,000 students. This level of instruction continied through 1934. [Takano 1992:76-77, 81, 83). ~ In 1935, youth military training centers and supplementary vocational schools were integrated into youth schools. After 1938, all young working men were required to enter youth schools. Youth schools had two-year general courses for those who did not attend higher elementary schools, and four- to five-year courses for those who graduated from higher elementary schools. The five-year courses for men included 350 hours of military training, 100 hours for ethics and civics, and 510 hours for general and vocational subjects. For female students, two-year general courses were offered to those who did not go to higher elementary schools, and two- or three-year courses were offered to those who graduated from higher elementary schools. [Takano, pp. 135-40 and 162.] The Wall Street Crash in America and resulting Depression had a huge impact on Japan. The country like Gernany was deeply dependant on foreign export markets and as a result of the Deoressioin these began to dry up. This intensified existing attitudes, especuially the need to have more colonies. with raw materials and guaranted markets. Here the focus was on China which offered both. Japanese military action began with the seizure of Manchuria (1931). The Army subsequently changed the youth military training centers and supplementary vocational schools. They were integrated into youth schools (1935). The invasion of China increased maznpower needs. Employed youths were required to enter youth schools. Youth schools had a 2-year general course program for thise who did not attend higher elementary schools. There was a 4-5 year proigram for youths who had graduated from higher elementary schools. The 5-year program was for males and included 350 hours of military training, 100 hours for ethics and civics, and 510 hours for general and vocational subjects. For females there was a 2-year program for those who had attended higher elementary schools, and 2- or 3-year courses for those who graduated from higher elementary schools. [Takano. pp. 135-40 and 162.] As Japan was gearing up for war, te primary schools were renamed “National People's Schools (1941). The Army coordinated militaryc wartime training as well as related academic instruction. The children were taught to be dedicated subjects of the emperor and thatv it was their duty to fight the war for the emperor. National textbooks repeared these thenes, esopecially history texts and whatvthe Japanese called ethics. The emperor was deified and Imperial Army and Navy poresented as the glorified embiodiment of the Japanese nation. An example is the the History Textbook for primary schools described the legend of the creation of the Japanese nation by the Sun Goddess, and the first Emperor Jinmu. [Harada and Tokuyama, p. 111.] Another example was the National History forprimary schools (1940). It refers to Emperor Hirohito as a 'Living God'. This imperial worship and mnilkitary gkorification continued until the end of World War II. [Ishikida], Gen. Hidekki Tojo becanme prime-minister (1941). And he appointed military men to head the various ministries, completing military control of Japan. They expanded their reach over Japanese society. The military was already deeply inbedded in Japan's educatiin system. Teaching in the school transitioined from ultra-nationalism to xenephobia. Military training increased in the schools. Even primary school children, includung the girls were taught combat skills. Ultimstely the schools had to close. The ilder boys were drafted. The older girls eere and middle aged bioys were sent into the fsctiries to susstain wr production. The youngrer children were sent jnto the ciuntryside to escape the American bombing. And as the Ameriucans began preosarung to invsade, the Ketsugo Program intensuified combat trainung. This of course came to a n abrupt end with the Anericaan victory in the Pacific War (1945). The Showa Era continued, but bwith dramtically differen policies and major reforms, including school reforms. .
The Second Showa Era was very long. Emperor Hirohito live for over four decades after the end of the Pacific War. As a result of Japan's defeat in the horrendous Pacific War, huge constitutional changes occurred during the American occupation. These were largely mandated by Gen. MacArthur and his staff. One of the most important change was a fundamental alteration in the role of the emperor ending his role a worshipped diety and turning him into a largely ceremonial figure. This was readily accepted by Emoeror Hirohito, in large measure because he thought he was about to be arrested and hanged as a hugely responsible war criminal. Which would have been fully justified. This in turn allowed MacArthur to mandate fundamental changes in Japanese society which were for the most part accepted without major opposition by the Japanese public because the Emperor enthusiastically endorsed them. Without that endorsement, the reforms would have been much more diddicult to implement. Among those changes were a major reordering of Japanese education. The militarism and emperor worship on which Japanese education had been centered was ended. We see that visually in the schools. Primary boys stopped wearing Japanese Army uniforms, although the Prussian cadet uniforms and sailor outfits persisted, mostly in the secondary schools. The Meiji Imperail Rescript disappeared from Japanese Schools. The schools now incculcated the virtues of a peaceful, democratic society. What the schools did no do, especially after the occupation ended (1952) was to teach that Japan had launced an gressive war and tht the Japanese Army had committed unimagianable atrocities in the name of the Japnese people. We beliece it best here shift our coveragethe dynastic imperial reigns to the more conventional decade assessments.
1945-49
On Aug. 14, 1945, Emperor Hirohito spoke to the nation in an inprecedented radio address and Japan accepted the Potsdam Declaration, surrendering unconditionally to the Allied powers. A factor here was to surrender to the United Srate and avoid a Soviet occupatrion (August 14, 1945). The iccupation began after the surrender ceremony under the big guns of the USS Missouri (September 2). Japan's impressive education had been mobilized for the country's massive war effort. Students had been instructed in military drill and then drafted into the military vor set off to work in factories. Some schoold became factory-like production centers. The younger children were evacuated to the countryside with their teachers. Teachers who were mostly men and mny had been drafted. Essentially schooling ceased in the last year of the war. Some schools were destroyed in the bombings. Others were converted some schools, and others were used as refuge centers. So the American occupation had to put the school system back together. But the Americans wannted to do much more. The militarists had used the schools as part of Japan's move to war even before seizing control of the government. The idea was to reform the country's education systen so it could contribute to a new democractic and peaceful country. The occupation authorrities made it clear that they were going to abolish the country's militaristic education and ultranationalistic ideology. the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers (SCAP/GHQ)
issued a directive making this clear to the Japanese Government which unlike the NAZI Government in Germany was left in place (October 1945). Educational was one of the many areas of Japanese life that were fundamentally reformed during the occupation (1945-52). The changes included changes in 1) philosophy and goals of education, 2) the student-teacher relationship, 3) coeducation, 4) structure of the public education system, 5) textbook content and procurement, 6) personnel at the Ministry of Education (MOE), 7) kanji script reform, and and 8) university distribution. The Americans played a key role in these reforms, but they worked closely with the MOE. The reform effoprt was overseen by the Education Division (Joseph C. Trainor) of the Civil Information and Education Section (CIE) and Kermit R. Dyke/Donald M. Nugent in SCAP/GHQ. SCAP had the United States Education Mission to Japan assist with the process. They issued two reports (March 1946 and September 1950) which provided the basic framewok for Japan's new education system.
The 1950s
The 1960s
The 1970s
The 1980s
The 1990s
Sources
Aramaki, Sōhei. 2000. “Kyōiku Kikai no Kakusa wa Shukushō Shitaka: Kyōikukankyō no Henka to Shusshin Kaisōkan Kakusa” in Hiroyuki Kondō, ed. Sengo Nihon no Kyōiku Shakai (Tokyo: Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai, 2000), pp. 15-35.
Ishikida, Miki Y. Japanese Education in the 21st Century (Universe: June 2005).
Harada, Taneo and Masato Tokuyama. Eds. Shogakkō ni Miru Senzen Sengo no Kyōkasho Hikaku (Tokyo: Gyōsei, 1988).
Okado, Masakatsu. Minshū no Kyōiku Keiken (Tokyo: Aoki Shoten, 2000).
