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Japanese schools: Historical trends -- 20th century Taishō Era
Figure 1.--This is a Japanese family photogtraphed in thrir home during the 1920s. Notice the wood and paper construction. The father looks like a naval officer. Until the turn of-the 20th century, Jaoan had ficused on building a mnodern primary school system. By the 1920s they had made considerable progress in creating a secondary and university system. The boy here looks like he has judt began at a middle school, the first step in the secondaty system. Is father probably entered the naval miliatary academy. At the turn-of-the century there were omly a small number od secondary bdchools.
Japanese Historical School Trends: The 20th Century--Taishō Era (1912-26)
The Taishō Era is the period in Japanese history during the reign of the Emperor Taishō (大正) (1912-26). Taishō in sharp contrast to his father was a sickly man. Meiji did not play a role in the Meiji Restoration, but did play a major role in goverment after he reached adulthood. Taishō in contrast did not play a role in government. This resulted in a shifting power balance away from the Imperial Palace and the old oligarchic group of elder statesmen (or genrō) aroiund the Emperor. The Imperial Diet (parliament) and the democratic parties emerged as the major force. This era was one of mixed currents. Successful miiitary campsigns in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) stirred the natlonalist spirit, enforcing the imperial and nationalistic ideology of the Meiji era. We see the Army involved in Japanese schools as early as World War I. It was probably involved eralier, but we do not yet have any confirmation of this. At the same time, it was Japan's liberal era -- Taishō Democracy. The Goverment continued to expand the school system. The enrollment rates in elementary continued to increase and we began to real almost all of the school-age population, we see very substantial numbers of girls in the primary schools as well as more children from the poorer classes. [Okado, p. 234.] Secondary enrollmenbts wew also increasing. Over 10 percent of males and 5 percent of girls (1915). [Aramaki, p. 16.] Enrollment in the vocational schools exceeded 1 million students (1923). This was an option after primary school. Mostly boys attended these schools, but by thus time neraly 30 percenbt were girls. [Takano] Some 2 percent of male students and a minimal number of female students went on to post-secondary education (by 1915). [Aramaki, p. 16.] The percentage of male students was not out of line with Western numbrrs, but the girls numbers were still very low. The College Ordinance of 1918, the status of 'university' was granted to many other national, prefectural, municipal, and private professional educational institutions. These schools were able to gain the prestigious university status if they added preparatory courses for secondary education. [(Osaki, pp. 36-37.] Options for higher education continued to expand and more and more students were taking advantage of these opportunities. One option was 3-year professional schools. There were 3-year preparatory high schools and three-year colleges. Another option was 3-year preparatory high schools and 3-4 year Imperial universities. As by the 1930s, the Japanese enrollment rate in higher education had risen to about 6 percent for males and about 1 percent for women. [Aramaki, p. 17.] There were progressive educators advocating child-centered education for middle class children. Thus was modtly in the cities. [Okado. pp. 144-55.] Economomic conditions were favorable in the Roaring Twenties. This was in part due to the American market which was a growing market for Japanese exoorts. Unfortunately for Japan and Asia, the parlimetarians came into conflict with the military establishment which was determined to create a substantial modern military. This was an expensive undertaking. A liberal outlook is perhaps an overstatement for the parlimentarians, after all they continued efforts to expand into China--issuing the Twenty-one Demands. But many politucal leaders were unwilling to bankrupt the nation in the drive to create a modern military that could confront the Western powers, especially the United States which had a vastly larger industrial economy and the financial ability to build military equipment. The military considered this tanamount to treason. And the practice of assassinating political figures became a common event. There were no major changes in the Meiji education system, but the steady expansiion of the system continued, inckuding the university system.
Emperor Taishō
The Taishō Era is the period in Japanese history during the reign of the Emperor Taishō (大正) (1912-26). Taishō in sharp contrast to his father was a sickly man. Meiji did not play a role in the Meiji Restoration, he was still a boy. He did play a major role in goverment after he reached adulthood. Taishō in contrast did not play a role in government. This resulted in a shifting power balance away from the Imperial Palace and the old oligarchic group of elder statesmen (or genrō) aroiund the Emperor. The Imperial Diet (parliament) and the democratic parties emerged as the major force.
Mixed Currents
This era was one of mixed currents. Successful military campsigns in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) stirred the natlonalist spirit, reinforcing the imperial and nationalistic ideology of the Meiji era. We see the Army involved in Japanese schools as early as World War I. It was probably involved earlier, but we do not yet have any confirmation of this. At the same time, it was Japan's liberal era -- Taishō Democracy.
The Goverment continued to expand the school system. The enrollment rates in elementary continued to increase and beghuins to include almost all of the school-age population. We see very substantial numbers of girls in the primary schools as well as more children from the poorer classes. [Okado, p. 234.] Secondary enrollmenbts wew also increasing. Over 10 percent of males and 5 percent of girls (1915). [Aramaki, p. 16.] Enrollment in the vocational schools exceeded 1 million students (1923). This was an option after primary school. Mostly boys attended these schools, but by thus time neraly 30 percenbt were girls. [Takano] Some 2 percent of male students and a minimal number of female students went on to post-secondary education (by 1915). [Aramaki, p. 16.] The percentage of male students was not out of line with Western numbers, but the girls numbers were still very low. The College Ordinance of 1918, the status of 'university' was granted to many other national, prefectural, municipal, and private professional educational institutions. These schools were able to gain the prestigious university status if they added preparatory courses for secondary education. [(Osaki, pp. 36-37.] Options for higher education continued to expand and more and more students were taking advantage of these opportunities. One option was 3-year professional schools. There were 3-year preparatory high schools and three-year colleges. Another option was 3-year preparatory high schools and 3-4 year Imperial universities. As by the 1930s, the Japanese enrollment rate in higher education had risen to about 6 percent for males and about 1 percent for women. [Aramaki, p. 17.] There were progressive educators advocating child-centered education for middle class children. Thus was modtly in the cities. [Okado. pp. 144-55.]
Economic Conditions
Economomic conditions were favorable in the Roaring Twenties. The German industrial economy was highly depoedent on export markets. This was in part due to the American Roaring Twenties creating a growing market for Japanese exoorts.
Military Demands
Unfortunately for Japan and Asia, the parlimetarians came into conflict with the military establishment which was determined to create a substantial modern military. This was an expensive undertaking. A liberal outlook is perhaps an overstatement for the parlimentarians, after all they continued efforts to expand into China--issuing the Twenty-one Demands. But many politucal leaders were unwilling to bankrupt the nation in the drive to create a modern military that could confront the Western powers, especially the United States which had a vastly larger industrial economy and the financial ability to build military equipment. The military considered this tanamount to treason. And the practice of assassinating political figures became a common event. There were no major changes in the Meiji education system, but the steady expansiion of the system continued, inckuding the university system.
Sources
Aramaki, Sōhei. 2000. “Kyōiku Kikai no Kakusa wa Shukushō Shitaka: Kyōikukankyō no Henka to Shusshin Kaisōkan Kakusa” in Hiroyuki Kondō, ed. Sengo Nihon no Kyōiku Shakai (Tokyo: Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai, 2000), pp. 15-35.
Okado, Masakatsu. Minshū no Kyōiku Keiken (Tokyo: Aoki Shoten, 2000).
