Figure 1.--Early American tin-types were done as cased images, just like Dags and Ambros. The revolver suggess the Civil War to us. Thus we would guess that the portrait was taken about 1861-63. Cased portraits began to become rather after that, especially a fully cased tin-type with a heavy frame. The revolver given the boys age seems small, it may be a toy and is presumably a studio prop. Note the boy is barefoot. We have found very few images of barefoot boys in the 19th century, primarily because children were usually dressed up for portraits.

We do not see very many boys barefoot in 19th century photography, and by the 1860s with the CDV and tin-type we have very large numbers of images to sample. The price of the portrait had fallen to a point that all but the very poorest Americans could afford them. But we still virtully never see boys barefoot in 1860s portraits. Presumably this was because most photographs were studio portrait for which the children were dressed up. We know for a fact that many boys went barefoot in the 1860s. Incresing urbanization probably affected this to an extent, but the rarity in the photographic record we believe is misleading. We do note that most boys are dressed up for their portraits. We do see a few of these boys barefoot. The vast majority of boys were dressed up for the portraits and we never see these boys barefoot. The boys we see barefott are boys more casually dress which in itself was not very common. The boy here is a good example (figure 1). There were major developments concerning footwear. The Civil War was fought during the decade (1861-65). This significantly boosted the production of ready-made clothing as a result of lucrative Goverment contracts. This not only included uniforms, but also footwear. This was largely in the North. Federal troops were well uniformed and provided with footwear. This was less true in the South which was less well financed and had fewer factories. As a result, many Confederate soldiers were at times barefoot. The Battle of Gettysburg began with Confederate units looking for boots. The end result in the North was a greatly expaded footwear industry. This affectedthe price and availbility of children's footwear. Industrial expansion in the North also increased personal income and the ability of families to afford shoes for their children. This was atrend which only increased in subsequent decades.

Photogrphic Record

We do not see very many boys barefoot in 19th century photography. This is misdleading because we know that countless boys went barefoot in the 19th century. Until mid-century, however, there are only very limited numbers of images. This only changed with the invention of photography. Even then, the number of early images is limited especially in the 1840s. With the advent of the CDV based on the albumen process in America (1860), we see really large numbers of images. The CDV was cheap and unlike Dags and Ambros could be easily collected and kept in scrabooks or especially made ablbums for these mounted phoyographs--all the same size. Larger cabinet cards appeared a few years later (1866). CDVs and cabinet cards had the added advantage that they coukld be reproduces making it possible to seen copies to family and friends. And this provided as huge body of evidence to sample. With the CDV, the price of the portrait had fallen to a point that all but the very poorest Americans could afford them.

Prevalence

Even though American boys commonly went barefoot, we see very few shiwing up in the photographic record during the 1860s. We have processed thousands of 19th century images. And very rarely do we see barefoot American children. For some reason that changes for a short period in the early 20th ceentury, but throughout the 19th century we rarely find barefoot children in the photographic record (1840s-90s). And this is despite the fact that many children went barefoot throughout the century. Presumably this was because most photographs were studio portrait for which the children were dressed up. Thus the photographic record is not a good indicator of the prevalence of going barefoot. Not only were the children dressed up, but the more affluent class is over-represented in the photographic record and their children were less likely to go barefoot.

Studio Portraits

The great majority of the 19th century photographic record is studio photography. While photography outside the studio was possible, it was complicated and in the 1860s basically required a team of horses to move a van with the equipment and needed chemicals. This is how Brady and others took their iconic Civil War photographs. That was something that few ensusiasts could afford or be bothered with. This gradually changed in the later-19th century, but it was not until the turn-of-the 20th century that amateur photography became easy and the modern snapshot was born. The rarity of barefoot boys in the photographic record we believe is misleading. We do note that most boys are dressed up for their potrtraits. Most mothers insisted on it. We do see a few of these boys barefoot. The vast majority of boys, however, were dressed up for the portraits and we very rarely see these dressed up boys barefoot. The few boys we see barefoot are boys more casually dress which in itself was not very common. The boy here is a good example (figure 1).

Urbanization

While many children still went barefoot in the 1860s, incresing urbanization probably affected this to an extent. America was still a very rural ciountry, but cities were growing. There were now 10 cities with a population of over 1 million inhabitants, all but one in the North. (New Orleans was the only southern city with a population over 1 million.) Industrializtion was a major factor driving the American economy by the 1860s and would be a decisive factor in the Civil War. Children in cities were more likely to wear shoes than in the countryside. Here affluence was a factor, but also the rougher city surfaces.

Gender

Both boys and girls went barefoot, but we think it was more common for the boys. Our 1860s archive, however, is limited. We base this primarily on the larger number of images we have found later in the century when school portaits become more common.

Age

Age was a major factor. The younger a child was and the more they stayed ariunf the homr, the nore kikeky they were to go barefoot. Onece boys reached theuir teen yerars, the mire likely they were to wear shoies.

Developments

There were major developments concerning footwear in the 1860s. The Civil War was fought during the decade (1861-65). This significantly boosted the denand for ready-made clothing. The Federal Government could aford to buy what was needed. Congress authorized lucrative Goverment contracts. This not only included uniforms, but also footwear. This was largely in the North. Federal troops were well uniformed and provided with sturdy footwear. This was less true in the South which was less well financed and had fewer factories. As a result, Confederate soldiers were at times barefoot. The Battle of Gettysburg began with Confederate units looking for boots. The end result in the North was a greatly expaded footwear industry, inclusing new machinery to mass produce footwear. This had the added impsct of affected the price and availbility of civilian footware, including children' s footwear. Industrial expansion in the North also increased personal income and the ability of families to afford shoes for their children. This was a trend which steadily only increased in subsequent decades as Ameruvan industrialization gained steam..